Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC - AD Ã, 65), fully Lucius Annaeus Seneca and also known just as Seneca ( ), is a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, playwright, and - in a single piece - satirical of the Latin Periodic Silver Age.
Seneca was born in Cordoba in Hispania, and grew up in Rome, where he was trained in rhetoric and philosophy. He was a tutor and then advisor to the emperor Nero. He was forced to commit suicide for alleged involvement in the Pisonian conspiracy to kill Nero, where he was most likely not guilty. His father is Seneca the Elder, his older brother is Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus, and his nephew is the poet Lucan. Serene and calm suicide has been the subject of many paintings. As a writer, Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for his all-tragedy drama. His philosophical writings include a dozen philosophical essays, and one hundred and twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues. As a tragedy, he is famous for Medea and Thyestes .
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Seneca was born in CÃÆ'³rdoba in the Roman province of Baetica in Hispania. His father is the older Lucius Annaeus Seneca, a Spanish-born Roman knight who has gained fame as a writer and teacher of rhetoric in Rome. Mrs. Seneca, Helvia, comes from a prominent Baetician family. Seneca was the second of three children; the others are Lucius Annaeus Novatus (later known as Junius Gallio), and Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan. Miriam Griffin said in his biography of Seneca that "the evidence for Seneca's life before his exile in 41 is very slight, and the potential interest of these years, for social history as well as for biography, is so great that some writers at Seneca have resisted the temptation to add knowledge to the imagination. "Griffin also concludes from ancient sources that Seneca was born in 8, 4, or 1 BC. He thought he was born between 4 and 1 BC and lived in Rome at 5 AD.
Seneca tells us that he was taken to Rome in the "arm" of his aunt (his stepbrother) at a young age, probably when he was about five years old. His father lived for much of his life in the city. Seneca was taught the usual subjects of literature, grammar, and rhetoric, as part of the standard education of the high birth Romans. While still young he received philosophical training from Attalus the Stoic, and from Sotion and Papirius Fabianus, both belonging to the Short School of Sextii which combined Stoicism with Pythagoreanism. Sotion persuaded Seneca when he was young (in his early twenties) to become a vegetarian, whom he trained for about a year before his father urged him to stop because the practice was associated with "some foreign rituals". Seneca often has trouble breathing all his life, probably asthma, and at some point in his mid-20s (about 20 AD), he seems to have been stricken with tuberculosis. She was sent to Egypt to live with her aunt (the same aunt who brought her to Rome), whose husband Gaius Galerius had become an Egyptian prefect. She took care of her during a health period lasting up to ten years. At 31 AD, he returned to Rome with his aunt; his uncle was dying on the shipwreck route. It was her aunt's influence that enabled Seneca to be elected as quaestor (probably after 37 CE) who also gave her the right to sit in the Roman Senate.
Politics and seclusion
Seneca's early career as a senator seemed to have succeeded and he was praised for his speeches. Dio Cassius tells a story that Caligula was deeply offended by Seneca's Senate speech that he ordered him to commit suicide. Seneca only survived because he was seriously ill and Caligula was told he would die soon. In his writings, Seneca does not have a good thing to say about Caligula and often describes him as a monster. Seneca explained his own survival because of his patience and his devotion to his friends: "I want to avoid the impression that all I can do for faithfulness is death."
At 41 AD, Claudius became emperor, and Seneca was accused by new consort Messalina of adultery with Julia Livilla, sister of Caligula and Agrippina. The affair has been in doubt by some historians, as Messalina has a clear political motive to get rid of Julia Livilla and her supporters. The Senate announced the death penalty in Seneca paid by Claudius for exile, and Seneca spent the next eight years on the island of Corsica. Two of Seneca's earliest surviving works date from the period of his exile - both of which are entertainment. In his book Consolation to Helvia , his mother, Seneca comforted her as a grieving mother for losing her son for exile. Seneca accidentally mentioned the death of his only son, a few weeks before his exile. Later in life Seneca married a woman younger than himself, Pompeia Paulina. It has been thought that a baby boy may have come from a previous marriage, but the evidence is "tenuous". Another work of Seneca, Consolation to Polybius , was written to entertain Polybius, one of the freed Claudius, for the death of his brother. This is noted for Claudius' praise, and Seneca expressed his hope that the emperor would call him from exile. In 49 AD Agrippina married his uncle Claudius, and through his influence Seneca was recalled to Rome. Agrippina was commended for Seneca and appointed her teacher to his son, the future emperor Nero.
Imperial Advisor
From AD 54 to 62, Seneca acted as Nero's counselor, along with prefectual prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus. One of the byproducts of his influence was that Seneca was appointed a good consul at the age of 56. The influence of Seneca is said to be very strong in the first year. Seneca fabricated Nero's accession speech in which he promised to restore proper legal procedures and authorities to the Senate. He also composed a speech to Claudius that Nero delivered at the funeral. Seneca's satirical skit Apocolocyntosis blasphemes Claudius's praise and praises Nero from the earliest period of Nero's reign. In 55 M. Seneca wrote his letter On Clemency written after Nero's murder of Britannicus, perhaps as a tool to convince people that murder will be the end, not the beginning of bloodshed. On Clemency is a work which, although flattering Nero, is meant to show the correct path of goodness (Stoic) for a ruler. Tacitus and Dio suggested that Nero's initial rule, during which time he listened to Seneca and Burrus, was quite competent. However, ancient sources suggest, over time, Seneca and Burrus lost their influence over the emperor. In 59 they reluctantly approved Agrippina's murder, and afterwards Tacitus reported that Seneca had to write a letter justifying the killing to the Senate.
In 58 AD Publius consul Suillius Rufus has made a series of public attacks against Seneca. These attacks, reported by Tacitus and Cassius Dio, include allegations that, within four years of service to Nero, Seneca has acquired a tremendous personal fortune of three hundred million sestertii by charging high interest on loans throughout Italy and the provinces. Suillius's attacks include claims of sexual corruption, with the suggestion that Seneca has slept with Agrippina. Tacitus, though, reports that Suillius is highly prejudiced: she has been a favorite of Claudius, and has become a villain and informant. In response, Seneca brought a series of prosecutions for corruption against Suillius: half of his land was confiscated and he was sent into exile. However, the attack reflects Seneca's criticism made at that time and continues into old age. Seneca is undoubtedly very wealthy: he owns properties in Baiae and Nomentum, an Alban villa, and an Egyptian plantation. Dio Cassius even reported that the Boudica rebellion in Britannia was caused by Seneca who imposed a large loan on the British native aristocracy after Claudius' conquest of England, and then summoned them suddenly and aggressively. Seneca is sensitive to such accusations: his De Vita Beata ("On Happy Lives") comes from around this time and includes a defense of wealth along the Stoic line, arguing that the wealth obtained properly and spent is the appropriate behavior for a philosopher.
Retirement
After the death of Burrus in 62, Seneca's influence declined rapidly. Tacitus reports that Seneca tried to retire twice, at 62 and 64 AD, but Nero refused on both occasions. However, Seneca is increasingly absent from court. He adopted a sedentary lifestyle on his country's plantation, concentrating on his studies and rarely visiting Rome. Over the last few years he has composed two of his greatest works: Naturales quaestiones - an encyclopedia of the natural world; and his letters to Lucilius - documenting his philosophical thought.
Death
In 65 AD, Seneca was caught after the Pisonian conspiracy, a plan to kill Nero. While Seneca may not be part of the conspiracy, Nero orders him to commit suicide. Seneca follows tradition by deciding on several veins to die out of blood, and his wife Pompeia Paulina tries to share his fate. Cassius Dio, who wanted to emphasize Nero's impatience, focused on how Seneca attended his last letters, and how his death was accelerated by the army. A generation after the Julio-Claudian emperor, Tacitus wrote a story about suicide, which, given his Republican sympathies, may have been somewhat romanticized. According to this account, Nero orders Seneca's wife to be saved. His wounds were tied and he was not trying to kill himself anymore. As for Seneca himself, his age and diet are blamed for his slow blood loss and extended pain rather than rapid death; he also took the poison, which is also not fatal. After dictating his last words to a scribe, and with the circle of friends who attended him at his home, he immersed himself in warm water, which was expected to accelerate blood flow and reduce his pain. Tacitus writes, "He was then brought into the bath, with the steam he was strangled, and he was burned without any ordinary funeral, so he has directed the codicil of his will, even when at the peak of his wealth and strength he thought of a close life."
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Legacy
As a humanist saint
Seneca's writings were famous in Roman times, and Quintilian, written thirty years after Seneca's death, commented on the popularity of his work among the youth. However, while he found many things to admire, Quintillian criticized Seneca for what he regarded as a degenerate literary style - a critique echoed by Aulus Gellius in the middle of the second century.
However, the early Christian Church was very kind to Seneca and his writings, and the church leader Tertullian posessively referred to it as "our Seneca." In the fourth century an apocryphal correspondence with the apostle Paul has been made linking Seneca into the Christian tradition. The letters are mentioned by Jerome who also includes Seneca among the list of Christian writers, and Seneca is also mentioned by Augustine. In the sixth century Martin of Braga synthesized Seneca's thoughts into several treatises that became very popular within himself. Otherwise, Seneca is mainly known through a large number of quote and extracts in popular florilegia during the medieval period. When his writings were read in the Middle Ages, most of his Letters to Lucilius - essays and relatively longer games were relatively unknown.
The writer and the medieval work continue to relate it to Christianity because of his alleged relationship with Paul. The Golden Legend , a 13th-century hagiographic account of widely-read saints, including reports of the Seneca death scene, and mistakenly featured Nero as Seneca's suicide witness. Dante placed Seneca (with Cicero) among the "great spirits" in the First Circle of Hell, or Limbo. Boccaccio, who in 1370 discovered Tacitus's works while exploring the library at Montecassino, wrote the story of Seneca's suicide which suggests that it was some kind of disguised baptism, or de facto baptism. Some, such as Albertino Mussato and Giovanni Colonna, go even further and conclude that Seneca must be a converted Christian.
Improved reputation
Seneca remained one of the few popular Roman philosophers of that period. He appears not only in Dante, but also in Chaucer and most of it in Petrarch, who adopts his style in his own essay and who quotes it more than any other authority except Virgil. In the Renaissance, print editions and translations of his work became common, including editions by Erasmus and comments by John Calvin. John of Salisbury, Erasmus, and others celebrated his works. A French essayist, Montaigne, who provided a vigorous defense of Seneca and Plutarch in his Essays , was considered by Pasquier to be "French Seneca." Similarly, Thomas Fuller praised Joseph Hall as "our British Seneca." Many people who think his ideas are not very original, still argue that he is important in making the Greek philosophers can be displayed and understood. Suicide has also become a popular subject in the art, from 1773 Jacques-Louis David's painting of Seneca's Death to the 1951 Quo Vadis film.
Even with the admiration of previous intellectual support groups, Seneca was never without his critics. In his own time, he was accused of being hypocritical or, at least, less than the "Stoic" lifestyle. While exiled to Corsica, he wrote a restoration plea that was somewhat incompatible with his defense of a simple life and acceptance of fate. In his book Apocolocyntosis he mocks Claudius's behavior and policy, and flatter Nero - as if Nero would live longer and wiser than the legendary Nestor. Publius claims Suillius Rufus that Seneca earned some "three hundred million sesterces" through Nero's help, very partisan, but they reflect the fact that Seneca is strong and rich. Robin Campbell, translator of Seneca letters, writes that "Seneca stock criticism for centuries [has]... a clear contrast between philosophical teaching and its practice."
In 1562, Gerolamo Cardano wrote an apology praising Nero in his book Encomium Neronis , printed in Basel. This may be intended to be a clone of encomium , reversing the depiction of Nero and Seneca appearing in Tacitus. In this work Cardano describes Seneca as the worst impostor, an empty rhetoric who only thinks to grab money and power, after poisoning the minds of the young emperor. Cardano states that Seneca is also worthy of death.
Among the historians who have attempted to reassess Seneca are the scholar Anna Lydia Motto who in 1966 argued that the negative image has been based almost entirely on Suillius's record, while many others who may have praised her have been lost.
"Therefore we have no contemporary accounts of Seneca's life, except for the hopeless opinion of Publius Suillius Think of the barren images we ought to have about Socrates, whether Plato and Xenophon's works did not reach us and whether we were entirely dependent on Aristophanes's description of the Athenian philosopher For sure, we must have a wrong and distorted view, that's the view left us about Seneca, if we just rely on Suillius. "
More recent work is to change Seneca's dominant perception as a channel only for existing ideas that show originality in Seneca's contribution to the history of ideas. The examination of Seneca's life and thought in relation to contemporary education and emotional psychology reveals the relevance of his mind. For example, Martha Nussbaum in her discussion of passions and emotions includes Seneca among the Stoics who offer important insights and perspectives on their emotions and roles in our lives. In particular devoting a chapter to his treatment of anger and management, he demonstrates Seneca's appreciation of the destructive role of uncontrolled anger, and his pathological relationships. Nussbaum then extended his examination of Seneca's contribution to a political philosophy that showed subtlety and richness in his thoughts on politics, education and the idea of ​​global citizenship and found the basis for reform-minded education in Seneca's ideas that enabled him to propose modern ways of education. which away from narrow traditionalism and total rejection of tradition. Elsewhere Seneca has been noted as the first major Western thinker of the complex nature and role of gratitude in human relationships.
Philosophy
Seneca is a prolific writer of philosophical work on Stoicism, mostly on ethics, with one work (Naturales Quaestiones) in the physical world. Stoicism was a popular philosophy of this period, and many upper-class Romans found in it a guiding ethical framework for political engagement. It used to be popular to consider Seneca to be very eclectic in its Stoicism, but modern scientists view it as a fairly orthodox Stoic, albeit a free-thinking person. He knew the writings of many Stoics before: he often calls Zeno, Cleanthes, and Chrysippus; and he often quotes Posidonius, with whom Seneca shares his interest in natural phenomena. His works contain many references to other ancient philosophers, and it is often noted that he often quotes Epicurus, especially in his book Letters. However, Seneca's interest in Epicurus is primarily limited to using him as a source of ethical principles. Seneca also showed an interest in Platonic metaphysics, but never with a clear commitment. The living moral essay is based on the Stoic doctrines, but is formulated in Latin and usually in non-technical language, making it accessible to a wider audience. His works deal with ethical theories and practical suggestions, and Seneca emphasizes that the two parts are different but interdependent. His letters to Lucilius remain one of his most popular works: by offering ethical guides, they showcase Seneca's quest for ethical perfection.
Seneca generally uses a spiky rhetorical style in prose. His writings focus on the traditional themes of Stoic philosophy. The universe is set to the best by rational maintenance, and this must be reconciled with difficulty. Seneca considers philosophy as a balm for the wounds of life. Destructive desires, especially anger and sadness, must be uprooted, though sometimes he offers advice to moderate him according to reason. He discussed the relative merits of contemplative life and active life, and he considered it important to face his own death and be able to face death. One must be willing to practice poverty and use wealth well, and he writes about help, pardons, the importance of friendship, and the need to benefit others.
Drama
Ten dramas were associated with Seneca, most likely written by him. This drama is in stark contrast to his philosophical work. With their intense emotions, and a gloomy overall tone, the drama seems to represent the antithesis of the Seneca Stoic faith. Until the 16th century it was normal to distinguish between Seneca the moral philosopher and the playwright Seneca as two separate persons. Scholars have tried to discover certain Stoic themes: it is an uncontrolled passion that produces madness, destruction and self-destruction. It has a cosmic and ethical aspect, and fate is a powerful force, though somewhat oppressive.
Many scholars think, following the ideas of 19th century German scholar Friedrich Leo, that the Seneca tragedy was written only for recitation. Other scholars think they are written for performance and that it is possible that actual performance has taken place in Seneca's life. Ultimately, this problem can not be solved based on existing knowledge. The Seneca tragedy has been successfully staged in modern times.
The dating of this tragedy is very problematic because of the absence of ancient references. A lament parody of Hercules Furens appears in Apocolocyntosis which implies the date before 54 AD for the game. A relative chronology has been suggested on geometrical grounds but scholars remain divided. The dramas are not all based on the Greek pattern; they have a five-acting form and differ in many ways from the extant Attic drama, and while the influence of Euripides on some of these works is considerable, so does the influence of Virgil and Ovid.
Seneca's performances were widely read in medieval European and Renaissance universities and were heavily influenced by tragic dramas of the time, such as English Elizabethan (William Shakespeare and other playwrights), French (Corneille and Racine), and Dutch (Joost van den Vondel). The English translation of the Seneca tragedy appeared in print in the mid-16th century, with all ten published collectively in 1581. He was regarded as the source and inspiration for what is known as "Revenge Tragedy," beginning with Thomas Kyd The Spanish Tragedy and continues well into the Jacobean era. Thyestes is considered the masterpiece of Seneca, and has been described by scholar Dana Gioia as "one of the most influential plays ever written." Medea is also highly respected, and praised along with Phaedra by T. S. Eliot.
Work
The work attributed to Seneca includes a dozen philosophical essays, one hundred and twenty-four letters dealing with moral issues, nine tragedies, and satire, a contentious attribution. The author of Hercules on Oeta has also been questioned. The Seneca Tragedy
Fabulae crepidatae (tragedy with the Greek subject):
- Hercules or Hercules hairy ( Hercules Madness )
- Troops ( Trojan Women )
- Phoenissae ( Phenicia Women )
- Medea
- Phaedra
- Oedipus
- Agamemnon
- Thyestes
- Hercules Oetaeus ( Hercules on Oeta ): generally considered not written by Seneca. First rejected by Heinsius.
Fabula praetexta (Tragedy in Roman setting):
Essays and letters
Dialog
Traditionally given in the following order:
- (64) De Providentia ( On providence ) - addressed to Lucilius
- (55) De Constantia Sapientis ( On Wise Person Basis ) - addressed to Serenus
- (41) De Ira ( In anger ) - A study of anger consequences and control - addressed to his brother Novatus
- (book 2 of De Ira )
- (book 3 of De Ira )
- (40) Ad Marciam, De consolatione To Marcia, On Consolation ) - Combine it with his son's death
- (58) De Vita Beata ( In Happy Life ) - addressed to Gallio
- (62) De Otio ( At Leisure ) - addressed to Serenus
- (63) De Tranquillitate Animi ( Peace of mind ) - addressed to Serenus
- (49) De Brevitate VitÃÆ'Â| ( In short life ) - Essay explains that every life span is enough if living wisely. - addressed to Paulinus
- (44) De Consolatione ad Polybium ( To Polybius, Consolation ) - Comforting on the death of his brother.
- (42) Ad Helviam matrem, De consolatione To Helvia, Consolation - A letter to her mother who comforts her for her absence during exile.
Other essays
- (56) De Clementia On Gremency ) - wrote to Nero about the need for clemency as good in the emperor.
- (63) De Beneficiis ( About Benefits ) [seven books]
Letters
- (64) Epistula morales ad Lucilium - a collection of 124 letters related to moral matters written to Lucilius Junior.
More
- (54) Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii ( The Gourdification of Divine Claudius ), a satirical work.
- (63) Naturales quaestiones [seven books] insights on ancient theories of cosmology, meteorology, and similar subjects.
Spurious
- (58-62/370?) Cujus etiam ad Paulum apostolum epistolae leguntur: These letters, allegedly between Seneca and St Paul, were worshiped by the earliest authority, but most of the scholars now doubt their authenticity.
"Pseudo-Seneca"
"Pseudo-Seneca" is a name used for uncertain authors of various medieval and medieval texts such as De Remediis fortuitorum, which was intended by Roman authors. At least some of these seem to preserve and adapt the original senecan content, for example, Saint Martin of Braga (dc 580) Formula vitae honestae , or De differentiis quatuor virtutumvitae honestae ("Rules for Honest Life ", or" On the Four Cardinal Virtues "). The earliest manuscripts preserve Martin's preface, where he explains that this is his adaptation, but later this copy is omitted, and the work is then fully considered by Seneca.
Famous depiction of
Further reading
- Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Anger, Mercy, Revenge. trans. Robert A. Kast and Martha C. Nussbaum. Chicago IL., University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBNÃ, 978-0-226-74841-2
- Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Difficulties and Happiness. trans. Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, and Gareth D. Williams. Chicago IL., University of Chicago Press, 2014. ISBNÃ, 978-0-226-74832-0
- Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Natural Questions. trans. Harry M. Hine. Chicago IL., University of Chicago Press, 2010. ISBNÃ, 978-0-226-74838-2
- Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. About Benefits. trans. Miriam Griffin and Brad Inwood. Chicago IL., University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBNÃ, 978-0-226-74840-5
- Cunnally, John, Nero, Seneca, and Medalist of the Roman Emperor , Art Bulletin, Vol. 68, No. 2 (June, 1986), pp.Ã, 314-317
- In Paola, O. (2015), "Connection between Seneca and Platonism in Epistulae Lucilium 58", Athena: ATINER'S Conference Paper Series, No: PHI2015-1445.
- Inwood, Brad, Reading Seneca. Stoic Philosophy in Rome , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
- Degand, Martin, SÃÆ'  © nÃÆ'¨que au risque du don. Une ÃÆ'  © thique oblative ÃÆ' la croisà © e des disciplines , Turnhout: Brepols, 2015.
- Lucas, F. L., Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy (Cambridge University Press, 1922; paperback 2009, ISBN 978-1-108-00358-2); on the man's Seneca, his drama, and his tragedy influence on the later drama.
- Motto, Anna Lydia, Seneca on Death and Immortality , The Classical Journal, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Jan., 1955), pp.Ã, 187-189
- Motto, Anna Lydia, "Seneca on Trial: The Opulent Stoic Case", The Classical Journal , Vol. 61, No. 6 (Mar., 1966), pp.Ã, 254-258
- Mitchell, David. 'Legacy: The Apocryphal Correspondence between Seneca and Paul Xlibris Corporation 2010
- Sevenster, J. N.., Paul and Seneca , Novum Testamentum, Supplement, Vol. 4, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1961; comparison of Seneca and the apostle Paul, the contemporaries.
- Shelton, Jo-Ann, Seneca Hercules Furens: Themes, Structures and Styles , GÃÆ'¶ttingen: Vandenhoeck & amp; Ruprecht, 1978. ISBN: 3-525-25145-9. A revised doctoral thesis writer at the University of California, Berkeley, 1974.
- Wilson, Emily, Seneca: Six Tragedies. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press, 2010.
External links
- Young Seneca's Work at Perseus Digital Library
- "On The Shortness of Life" by Seneca (American Audio Version)
- Vogt, Katja. "Seneca". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy .
- Wagoner, Robert. "Seneca". Encyclopedia of Internet Philosophy .
- The original text by Seneca in 'The Latin Library'
- Younger Seneca Works in Project Gutenberg
- Works by or about Seneca the Younger in the Internet Archive
- Seneca's Younger Works on LibriVox (public domain audiobook)
- Seneca: Letter from Stoic
- A collection of Seneca the Younger's works on Wikisource
- essays and Seneca letters in English (on Stoics.com)
- Comment list from Seneca's Letters
- Incunabula (1478) by Seneca in the McCune Collection
- Seneca's Tragedies and Elizabethan Drama
- SORGLL: Seneca, Thyestes 766-804, read by Katharina Volk, Columbia University. Society to read Greek and Latter Literary Literature (SORGLL)
- Works digitized by Lucius Annaeus Seneca at Biblioteca Digital HispÃÆ'¡nica, Biblioteca Nacional de EspaÃÆ' Â ± a
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