DNA DNA Testing is the use of DNA profiles (known as genetic fingerprints) to determine whether two people are biologically parent and child. The paternity test establishes genetic evidence whether a man is the biological father of an individual, and a pregnancy test determines whether a woman is a biological mother of an individual. The test can also determine the likelihood of someone becoming a biological grandparent for a grandchild. Although genetic testing is the most reliable standard, older methods also exist, including ABO blood type, analysis of various proteins and other enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigen antigens. Current techniques for paternity testing using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Paternity testing can now also be performed when a woman is still pregnant from a blood draw.
DNA testing is currently the most sophisticated and accurate technology for determining offspring. In DNA testing, the result (called 'probability of offspring) is 0% when parents' suspicions are not biologically related to children and the possibility of offspring is usually 99.99% when parents are thought to be biologically related to the child. However, while almost all individuals have a set of single and distinct genes, rare individuals, known as "chimera", have at least two different sets of genes, which can produce false-negative results if their reproductive tissue has a different genetic. -of network samples for tests.
Video DNA paternity testing
Dad test or pregnancy for child or adult
Testing is done by collecting the buccal cells found inside the cheek of a person using a buccal swab or a cheek swab. The swabs have a wooden or plastic stick with cotton on a synthetic tip. The collector rubs the inside of one's cheeks to collect as much as possible the buccal cells. The buccal cells are then sent to the laboratory for testing. For paternity testing, samples from father and son are expected to be required. For pregnancy tests, samples from mothers and children are expected to be needed.
Maps DNA paternity testing
Prenatal paternity test for unborn child
Invasive prenatal paternity testing
It is possible to determine who the biological father of the fetus is while the woman is still pregnant through a procedure called chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis. Choronic villus sampling (CVS) takes coronary villi (placental tissue) in either transervical or transabdominal ways. Amniocentesis takes the amniotic fluid by inserting the needle through the abdominal wall of the expectant mother. This procedure is very accurate because they take a direct sample of the fetus; However, there is a small risk for women to miscarry and lose pregnancy as a result. Both CVS and Amnio require pregnant women to visit a genetic specialist known as a maternal fetus medical specialist who will perform the procedure.
Non-invasive prenatal paternity testing
The current advances in genetic testing have led to the ability to determine who the biological father is while the woman is still pregnant through non-invasive methods. There is a small amount of fetal DNA (cffDNA) present in the mother's blood during pregnancy. This allows for accurate DNA testing of fetal DNA during pregnancy from a blood draw without the risk of miscarriage. Studies have shown that the first cffDNA can be observed as early as 7 weeks of pregnancy, and the number of cffDNA increases during pregnancy. There are only four companies with headquarters in the United States that offer noninvasive prenatal paternity test: DDC, Viaguard Accu-metrics, Ravgen and Natera.
DNA profile
Individual DNA is the same in somatic cells (nonreproductive). Sexual reproduction carries the DNA of both parents together randomly to create a unique combination of genetic material in new cells, so that the individual's genetic material comes from the genetic material of both of their parents in equal amounts. This genetic material is known as the individual nuclear genome, because it is found in the nucleus.
Comparing the DNA sequence of an individual with another individual can indicate whether one of them is from another. However, paternity DNA testing is currently not 100% accurate. Special sequences are usually seen to see if they are copied verbatim from one individual genome to another. If that is the case, then the genetic material of one individual may come from another (ie one is the other parent). In addition to nuclear DNA in the nucleus, mitochondria in cells also have their own genetic material called mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondrial DNA only comes from the mother, without limping.
Proving relationships based on mitochondrial genome comparison is much easier than those based on the nuclear genome. However, mitochondrial genome testing can prove only if two individuals are related by common descent through maternal lines only from the same ancestor and, thus, limited values ​​(eg, it can not be used to test paternity).
In testing a boy's father, a Y-chromosome ratio can be used, since it is passed directly from father to son.
In the US, AABB has regulations for DNA testing of fathers and families; However, AABB accreditation is not required. A DNA test result is legally accepted if collection and processing follow a chain of custody. Similarly in Canada, the SCC has rules on DNA paternity and relationship testing; however, this accreditation is recommended, but not necessary.
The International Community Pattern Testing Commission for Forensic Genetics has taken on the task of establishing biostatistical recommendations in accordance with ISO/IEC 17025 standards. The paternity bio-statistics evaluation should be based on the principle of likelihood ratio - which yields the Paternity Index, PI. Recommendations provide guidance on the concepts of genetic hypotheses and consideration of the calculations required to produce valid PIs, as well as on specific issues related to population genetics.
History
The first form of all parental tests is a blood group, or a suitable blood group between the expected child and parent, which became available in 1920, after the scientists admitted that the blood type, which had been discovered in the early 1900s, was inherited genetic.. Based on this form of testing, the blood types of children and parents are compared, and can be determined whether there is a possibility of parental relationships. For example, two parents of blood type O can only produce children with blood type O, and two parents with blood type B can produce children with blood type B or O. This most often leads to inconclusive results, because only 30 % of the entire population may be excluded from being a parent who may be in the form of this test. In the 1930s, a new form of blood test, serological test, which tested certain proteins in the blood, became available, with a 40% exclusion rate.
In the 1960s, highly accurate genetic genetic testing became possible when HLA typing was developed, comparing the genetic fingerprint of white blood cells between the child and the alleged parent. HLA test can be done with 80% accuracy, but can not distinguish between close relatives. The genetic parental testing technology advanced further with the isolation of the first restriction enzyme in 1970. A highly accurate parental DNA test became available in the 1980s with the development of RFLP. In the 1990s, PCR, developed in 1983, became the standard method for DNA parent testing. A simpler, faster, and more accurate test method than RFLP, has an exception rate of 99.99% or higher.
Legal evidence
DNA parent tests that follow rigorous chain-of-custody can yield legally valid results that are used for child support, inheritance, social welfare benefits, immigration, or adoption purposes. In order to comply with the requirements of the chain of custody law, all parties to be tested must be correctly identified and specimens collected by third-party professionals not related to one of the parties tested and not interested in the test results.
The quantum evidence required is clear and convincing evidence; ie, more evidence than ordinary cases in civil litigation, but much more than the hesitations required to punish defendants in criminal cases.
In recent years, immigration authorities in various countries, such as the US, UK, Canada, Australia, France and others have requested immigration and beneficiary applicants in family-based immigration cases to voluntarily take DNA offspring tests when primary documents such as birth certificates to prove the lost or inadequate biological relationship.
In the US, immigration applicants assume responsibility for organizing and paying for DNA testing. US immigration authorities require DNA testing, if pursued, by one laboratory accredited by AABB (formerly the American Blood Bank Association). Similarly, in Canada, laboratories should be accredited by SCC.
The US State Department and USCIS provide information about requests for DNA master tests for immigration purposes.
Although paternity tests are more common than pregnancy tests, there may be circumstances in which the child's biological mother is unclear. Examples include the case of an adopted child trying to reunite with his biological mother, a potential mix-up hospital, and in vitro fertilization in which the laboratory may have implanted an unrelated embryo inside the mother.
Other factors, such as new laws on reproductive technology using donated eggs and sperm and surrogate mothers, can mean that women who give birth are not always the legal mother of the child. For example, in Canada, the Federal Manpower Reproduction Act regulates the use of surrogated substitutes. The legitimate mother of the child may, in fact, be an egg donor. Similar laws apply in the UK and Australia.
Legal issues
United States
In the United States, paternity testing is entirely legitimate, and fathers can test their children without the consent or knowledge of the mother. Testing the paternity of the home kit is ready for purchase, although the results are unacceptable in court, and only for personal knowledge. Only court-ordered paternity tests can be used as evidence in court proceedings. If parental testing is filed for legal purposes in the U.S., including immigration, testing must be ordered through a lab that has AABB accreditation for DNA Relation testing. All accredited laboratories are listed on the AABB website.
The legal implications of paternity test results vary by country and according to whether parents suspected of being unmarried or married. If paternity tests do not meet forensic standards for the country concerned, court-ordered forensic tests may be required for test results to have a legal meaning. For unmarried parents, if the parents are currently receiving child support or prisoners, but DNA proves that the man is not the father in the future, the support automatically stops; however, in many states, this test should be carried out over a narrow period of time if voluntary recognition of hereditary forms has been signed by the alleged father; otherwise, test results may be ignored by law, and in many cases, a man may be required to pay child support, even if the child is biologically unrelated. In some states, if the mother receives support, then the alleged father has the right to file a lawsuit to recover the lost money from paying support. In 2011, and in most states, unmarried parents who are faced with voluntary recognition of hereditary forms are informed of the possibility and right to request DNA DNA testing. If the test is rejected by the mother, the father may not need to sign a birth certificate or voluntary recognition of the offspring form for the child. For an allegedly married parent, the husband of the mother is considered to be the father of the child. However, in most countries, this assumption can be reversed by the application of forensic paternity testing, but in many states, the time to reverse this presumption may be limited to the first few years of the child's life, depending on the law of the country concerned.
Canada
Personal father testing equipment available. The Canadian Standards Board regulates paternity testing in Canada where the laboratory is ISO 17025-approved. In Canada, only a handful of laboratories have this approval, and it is recommended that testing be done in this laboratory. The court also has the power to conduct paternity tests during a divorce case.
Philippines
DNA DNA testing for personal knowledge is legal, and home test equipment is available through letters from certified AABB- and ISO 17025 certified laboratories. DNA paternity testing for official purposes, such as support (child support) and inheritance disputes, should follow the DNA A. DNA Rule. No. 06-11-5-SC, enacted by the Philippine Supreme Court on October 15, 2007. Trials are sometimes ordered by the court when proof of father is required.
United Kingdom
In the UK, there are no restrictions on paternity tests until the Human Tissue Act 2004 came into force in September 2006. Article 45 states that it is a violation to possess without the proper consent of material human body with the intent of analyzing its DNA. Fathers who are legally declared have access to paternity testing services under the new rules, provided that putative parent DNA tested is their own. Tests are sometimes ordered by the court when proof of father is required. In the UK, the Department of Justice accredits agencies that can perform this test. The Department of Health produced a code of voluntary practice on genetic testing in 2001. This document is currently under review, and the responsibility for it has been transferred to the Human Tissue Authority.
French
The DNA test of the father is only made on the judge's decision in the case of a judicial procedure in order to establish or paternity contest or to obtain or deny child support. Personal DNA paternity testing is prohibited and punishable by law.
German
Under the Gene Diagnostics Act of 2009, testing of secret paternity is illegal. Each paternity test shall be performed by a licensed physician or by an expert with a university degree in science and special education in heredity testing, and a laboratory conducting genetic testing shall be accredited in accordance with ISO/IEC 17025. Full approval of information from both parents is required, and testing prenatal paternity is prohibited, with the exception of sexual harassment and rape. Any genetic testing performed without the consent of another parent may be punished by a EUR5,000 fine. Due to the amendment of civil law section 1598a in 2005, anyone who opposes paternity no longer automatically confiscates legal rights and legal obligations to the child.
Israel
Paternity tests with legal standing must be ordered by the family court. Although parents have access to a mental test of "peace of mind" through an overseas laboratory, the family court is not obliged to accept it as evidence. It is also illegal to extract genetic material for parental tests of children over 16 without the consent of a minor. Family courts have the power to conduct paternity tests on the will of the father in divorce and child support cases, as well as in other cases such as determining heirs and resolving questions involving population lists. A man who tries to prove that he is not the father of a registered child is entitled to a paternity test, even if the mother and the guard of nature object. The father's line test is not ordered when it is believed to lead to the murder of the mother, and until 2007, it was not ordered when it was possible that the child could be conceived outside marriage, making them mamzer under Jewish law.
Spanish
The paternity test of peace of mind is a "big business" in Spain, partly due to the French ban for paternity testing, with many genetic testing companies based in Spain.
Australia
Quiet descent tests are available on the internet. For paternity or maternity tests acceptable for legal purposes, such as to amend a birth certificate, Family Law Court process, a visa/citizenship application or a child support claim, the process must comply with Family Law Regulations 1984 (Cth). Furthermore, the sample laboratory processing should be accredited by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA).
China
In China, paternity testing is legally available to fathers who suspect their child is not theirs. The Chinese law also requires paternity testing for each child born outside the one-child policy to ensure the child is eligible for a
Inverted paternity test
The reverse of father determination is the ability to assign biological fathers when one's father, or suspect, is unavailable. This test uses STR alleles on the mother and child, other children and the brother of the alleged father, and the father's genetic constitutional deduction under the legal basis of genetics to create coarse merging. The advantage of this knowledge is the ability to compare the father's DNA when direct samples from the father are not available. Episode Solved indicates this test is used to see if the blood sample matches the abducteee.
See also
- Dad's scams
- Mosaicism and chimerism, a rare genetic condition that can produce false-negative results on DNA-based tests
- Non-dad event
- Lauren Lake's Paternity Court , a television series that debuted in the fall of 2013
Genetic:
- Heritability
- List of Mendelian traits in humans
References
External links
- [1]: HTA practice code under Approval
- [2] - www.UVM.com
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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