Yoga ( ; Sanskrit, ????, pronunciation) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual exercises or disciplines originating in ancient India. There are various kinds of yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Among the most famous types of yoga are Hatha yoga and R? Ja yoga.
The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to the pre-Vedic Indian tradition; this is mentioned in Rgveda, but most probably developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BC, in ancient India the ascetic and "rama" of a movement. The earliest chronology of texts depicting yoga practices is unclear, in various ways credited to the Upanishads. The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali dates from the first half of the first millennium CE, but only became famous in the West in the 20th century. Hatha yoga texts appeared around the 11th century with the origins of tantra.
Master Yoga from India then introduced yoga to the West, following Swami Vivekananda's successes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a physical exercise system throughout the Western world. Yoga in Indian tradition, however, is more than physical exercise; it has a core of meditation and spirituality. One of the six orthodox streams of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to the Hindu Samkhya philosophy.
Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease. The results of this study have been mixed and not convincing. On December 1, 2016, yoga was registered by UNESCO as Takbenda's cultural heritage.
Video Yoga
Etymology
The noun Sanskrit yoga is translated into (and in tune with) the English "yoke". It comes from the root yuj "to attach, join, exploit, yoke".
The spiritual meaning of the word yoga first appeared in the Epic Sanskrit, in the second half of the first millennium BC, and is associated with the philosophical system presented in the Patanjali Sutra Yoga, with the ultimate goal of "uniting" the human soul with the Divine. The term kriy? Yoga has a grammatical meaning, meaning "connection with verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutra (2.1), pointing to the "practical" aspect of philosophy, which is "unity with the highest" because of the execution of tasks in everyday life. life
According to P ?? this, the term yoga can come from one of two roots, yujir yoga (for yoke) or yuj sam? Dhau ("concentrate"). In the context of Yoga Sutra of Patanjali , root yuj sam? Dhau (concentrated) is considered by traditional commentators to be the correct etymology. In accordance with P ?? this, Vyasa who wrote the first comment on Yoga Sutras , states that yoga means sam? Dhi (concentration).
According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can come from one of two roots, yujir yoga ("to yoke") or yuj sam? Dhau ("concentrate"). A person practicing yoga or following a yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi (applicable to a man or woman) or yogini (traditionally a woman).
Maps Yoga
Definitions in classic Indian text
The term yoga has been defined in various ways in many different Indian philosophical and religious traditions.
Goal
Yoga's ultimate goal is moksha (liberation), although the precise definition of what this form requires depends on the philosophical or theological system by which it is conjugated.
According to Jacobsen, "Yoga has five major meanings:
- Yoga, as a method of discipline to achieve goals;
- Yoga, as a technique for controlling body and mind;
- Yoga, as the name of one school or philosophical system ( dar ana );
- Yoga, in other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," refers to a tradition that specializes in certain yoga techniques;
- Yoga, as the goal of Yoga practice. "
According to David Gordon White, from the 5th century onwards, the core principles of "yoga" are more or less already in existence, and variations of these principles evolve in different forms over time:
- Yoga, is a meditative tool for finding dysfunctional perception and cognition, and overcoming it to escape from suffering, inner peace and salvation; the illustrations of this principle are found in Hindu texts such as the Bhagavad Gita and Yogasutras in a number of Mahyukur Buddhist works and Jain texts;
- Yoga, as the rapture and expansion of self-consciousness become coexistent with everyone and everything; this is discussed in the sources as in the Vedic Hinduism and Epic literature Mah? bh? average, Pre Jainism? amaratiprakarana, and the Nikaya Buddhist texts;
- Yoga, as the path to omniscience and enlightened awareness that enables one to perceive impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) realities; examples are found in school texts Hinduism Nyaya and Vaisesika as well as texts of M'hyamaka Buddhism, but in different ways;
- Yoga, as a technique for entering other bodies, produces many bodies, and achieves other supernatural accomplishments; this is, declared White, described in Hindu and Buddhist Tantric literature, and Buddha S? maÃÆ' Â ± ÃÆ' Â ± aphalasutta; James Mallinson, however, disagreed and pointed out that such peripheral practices are far from Yoga's primary goal as a means driven by meditation for liberation in Indian religions.
White clarified that the last principle relates to the legendary purpose of "yogi practice", which is different from the practical purpose of "yoga practice", as seen in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the General Era, in various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.
School
The term "yoga" has been applied to various practices and methods, including Jain and Buddhist practices. In Hinduism this includes Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Yoga Laya and Hatha Yoga.
The so-called Raja Yoga refers to Ashtanga Yoga, the eight limbs that will be practiced to achieve samadhi, as described in the Yoga Sutras of Pantajali. The term raja yoga originally refers to the ultimate goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi , but is popularized by Vivekananda as a common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Hinduism
Classic Yoga
Yoga is considered a school of philosophy in Hinduism. Yoga, in this context, is one of the six Hindu religious schools (which accept the Vedas as a source of knowledge).
Because of Vivekananda's influence, [Yoga Sutra Patanjali] is now regarded as the basic book of classical yoga, a status only obtained in the 20th century. Prior to the 20th century, other works were regarded as the most central work, such as Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Vasistha , while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga won over Ashtanga Yoga. Ashtanga Yoga
Yoga as described in Yoga Sutra Patanjali refers to Ashtanga Yoga. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are regarded as the central text of the Hindu philosophy Yoga school, It is often called "R? Ja yoga", "yoga of kings," a term originally called the ultimate goal of the yoga empire, samadhi , but popularized by Vivekananda as a common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Ashtanga Yoga combines epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practice, systematic training, and self-development techniques for body, mind, and spirit. The epistemology ( pramanas ) is the same as the Samkhya school. Both received three reliable ways of knowledge - perception ( praty? K? A , direct sensory observation), inference ( anum? Na ) and reliable expert testimony ( word , religion). These two orthodox streams are also very dualistic. Unlike the S'iya Hinduism school, which pursues a non-theistic/atheist rationalist approach, the Hindu Yoga school accepts the concept of "personally, but essentially inactive, god" or "personal god". Together with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy combines ethical rules ( yamas and niyamas ) and an introspective way of life that focuses on the physical, mental and spiritual perfection of oneself , with the ultimate aim being kaivalya (the state of being liberated, united, and satisfied).
Hatha yoga
Hatha yoga, also called hatha vidy?, Is a kind of yoga that focuses on the exercise and posture of physical and mental strength that is depicted primarily in the three Hindu texts:
- Hatha Yoga Pradipika , Sv? tm? r? ma (15th century)
- Siwa Samhita , unknown author (1500 or late 17th century)
- Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (end of the 17th century)
Many scholars also included earlier Goraksha Samhita written by Gorakshanath in the 11th century in the above list. Gorakshanath is widely considered to be responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today.
Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddha, has a series of asanas and pranayama, such as tummo (Sanskrit ca? L? ) and a parallel hatha yoga trul khor.
Shaivism
In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva. See also 'tantra' below.
Buddhism
Buddhist meditation encompasses various meditation techniques aimed at developing awareness, concentration, supra-worldly power, tranquility, and insight.
The core technique has been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and has mushroomed and varied through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path to Enlightenment and Nirvana. The closest words to meditation in the classical language of Buddhism are bh? Van? and jh? Na/dhy? Na .
Jainism
Jain Meditation has become the main practice of spirituality in Jainism along with the Three Gems. Meditation in Jainism aims to manifest itself, attain salvation, take the soul to complete freedom. It aims to achieve and remain in a state of pure soul believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. Practitioners seek to become an astrologer ( Gyata-Drashta ). Jain Meditation can be categorized broadly for the good of Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and not profitable Artta and Raudra Dhyana.
Tantra
Samuel states that Tantrism is a contested concept. Tantra yoga can be described, according to Samuel, as a practice in Buddhist and Hindu texts (Saiva, Shakti) of the 9th to 10th centuries, which includes yoga exercises with the visualization of an elaborate god using geometric and picture arrangements (mandala), malignant male deities and especially women. , rituals associated with aggressive life stages, extensive use of chakra and mantras, and sexual techniques, all aimed at helping one's health, longevity and freedom.
History
The origin of yoga is a matter of debate. There is no consensus on chronology or specific origin other than yoga developed in ancient India. The suggested origins are the Indus Valley Civilizations (3300-1900 BC) and the pre-Vedic Eastern states of India, the Vedic period (1500-500 BC), and the "rama" of a movement. According to Gavin Flood, continuity may exist between these traditions:
[T] Its dichotomisation is too simple, since continuity can no doubt be found between rejection and vedic Brahmanism, while elements of non-Brahmanis, the Sramana tradition also play an important role in the formation of the world-renouncing ideal.
Pre-philosophical pre-yoga speculations begin to appear in texts c. 500-200 BC. Between 200 BC-500 CE, schools of Hindu philosophy, Buddhism and Jainism took on a coherent form of coherent yoga philosophy began to emerge. The Middle Ages saw the development of many yoga satellite traditions. Yoga became the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other Indian philosophical topics.
Pre-Vedic India
Yoga may have a pre-Vedic element. Some state yoga comes from the Indus Valley Civilization. Marshall, Eliade, and other scholars contend that the Pashupati seal found on the Indus Valley Civilization site depicts the figure in a position resembling a yoga poses or general meditation. This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain with newer Srinivasan analysis and may be a case of projecting "later practices into archaeological finds".
Vedic Period (1700-500 BC)
According to Crangle, some researchers favor linear theory, which tries to "interpret the origins and early development of contemplative practices of India as a sequential growth of the origins of Aria", just as traditional Hinduism considers the Vedas to be the main source of all spiritual knowledge. Thomas McEvilley supports a composite model in which pre-Aryan yoga prototypes existed in the pre-Vedic period and their refinements began in the Vedic period.
The practice of asceticism, concentration and posture described in the Vedas may be precursors to yoga. According to Geoffrey Samuel, "Our best evidence to date shows that the practice [yoga] evolved in the same hermitage with the early sramana (Buddhism, Jaina and Ajivikas), probably around the sixth and fifth centuries BC."
According to Zimmer, Yoga philosophy is calculated to be part of the non-Vedic system, which also includes the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Jainism and Buddhism: "[Jainism] does not originate from the Brahman-Aryan source, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of the pre- the older of northeastern India [Bihar] - rooted in the same subsoil of ancient metaphysical speculation such as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, other non-Vedic Indian systems. "
Textual reference
The first use of the root "yoga" is in Song 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, a dedication to raising the sun-god in the morning (Savitri), where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "yogi control".
The earliest evidence of the Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in Ke? In the 10,136 chants of Rgveda, said Karel Werner.
The Vedic yogis leave little evidence of their existence, practice, and accomplishment. And such evidence that survives in the Vedas is infinitesimal and indirect. However, the existence of successful yogis in the Vedic age can not be doubted.
Rgveda, however, does not describe yoga and there is little evidence of its practice. An early reference to the practice that later became part of yoga, was made at Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest Hindu Upanishad. For example, pranayama practice (conscious breathing) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (around 900 BC), and pratyahara practice (centralizing all senses to oneself) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 Chandogya Upanishad (about 800-700 BC).
Vedic ascetic practices
The practice of asceticism, concentration and posture used by the Vedic priest to perform yajna (sacrifice), may be a precursor for yoga. Vratya , a group of ascetics mentioned in Atharvaveda , emphasizes postures that may have evolved into yoga asanas. The beginning of Samhitas also contains references to other group hermits such as munis, ke'in, and vratyas. Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in Brahmins (text from the Vedic Corps, about 1000-800 BC) and Atharvaveda . Nasadiya Sukta from Rig Veda suggests an early contemplative tradition.
The Preclassical Era (500-200 BCE)
Konsep Yoga is the best way to teach teks-teks c. 500-200 SM Seperti Kanon Pali, Upanishad Tengah, Bhagavad Gita Shanti Parva dari Mahabharata . ઉપનિષદ
The first known appearance of the word "yoga", in the same sense as the modern term, is in Katha Upanishad, probably composed between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC, where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, mental activity, leading to the highest state. Katha Upanishad integrates monism from the early Upanishads with the concept of samkhya and yoga. It defines the different levels of existence according to their closeness to the deepest ? Tman . Therefore Yoga is seen as a process of interiorization or ascending awareness. This is the earliest literary work that highlights the basics of yoga. White states:
The earliest surviving systematic records of yoga and bridges of previous Vedic usage of this term are found in Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a holy book dating from around the third century BC [...] [I] describes the hierarchy of the constituents of mind- body - senses, mind, intellect, etc. - which consist of the basic category of S philosophy? mkhya, whose metaphysical system underlies yoga from Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10-11; 6.7-8).
Hymns in Book 2 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad , the first text of the first millennium of BC, state the procedure in which the body is held in an upright position, controlled breath and mind focused meditation, preferably in the cave or place a simple, simple, silent or water flowing softly, without sound or strong wind.
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad , may be composed in later centuries than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishad but before the Patanjali Sutra Yoga, mentions the sixfold method of yoga - breath control ( pranayama ), introspective withdrawal senses, meditation (dhyana ), mind concentration ( dharana ), philosophical/creative thinking ( tarka ) questions, and strong spiritual uptake ( samadhi ).
In addition to Yoga discussions over the Upanishad Principal, twenty Upanishad Yoga as well as related texts such as Yoga Vasistha, composed in the first and second millenniums, discuss the Yoga method.
Hindu philosophy sutra
Yoga is discussed in the basic Sutras of ancient Hindu philosophy. The Vai? E? Ika S? Tra of the Hinduism Vaisheshika school, dated to have been composed between the 6th and 2nd centuries BC discusses Yoga. According to Johannes Bronkhorst, an indologist known for his studies of early Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at the University of Lausanne, Vai? E? Ika S? Tra describes Yoga as "a state where the mind is only in the soul and therefore not in understanding". This is equivalent to pratyahara or sensual withdrawal, and the ancient Sutras affirm that this leads to the absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), then explaining additional yoga meditation steps on the way to a state of spiritual liberation.
Similarly, Brahma Sutra - the basic text of Vedanta Hinduism, discusses yoga in his sutra 2.1.3, 2.1.223 and others. The brahma sutra is thought to have been completed in a form that persisted between about 450 BC to 200 AD, and its sutras affirm that yoga is a means of obtaining "subtlety of the body" and other forces. The Nyaya sutra - the base text of the Nyaya school, variously thought to have been compiled between the 6th century BC and the 2nd century, discusses yoga in the 4.2.38-50 sutras. The ancient texts of Nyaya school include a discussion of the ethics of yoga, dhyana (meditation), samadhi, and among other things that argue that debate and philosophy are a form of yoga.
Macedonian historical text
Alexander the Great reached India in the 4th century BC. Along with his troops, he brought with him Greek academics who later wrote memoirs about the geography, people and customs they saw. One of Alexander's friends is Onesicritus, quoted in Book 15, Section 63-65 by Strabo, who describes yogins in India. Onesicritus claims that Indian yogins (Mandani) have practiced indifference and "different posture - standing or sitting or lying naked - and immobile".
Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them, who were initially rejected by the audience, but was later invited because he was sent by "the curious king of wisdom and philosophy". Onesicritus and Calanus learn that yogis regard the best doctrine of life as "excluding spirits not only pain but pleasure", that "humans train the body to work hard for their opinions to be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life with tariffs" , and that "the best place to live is one with the rarest equipment or clothing". These principles are important for the spiritual history of yoga. This may reflect the ancient roots of "undisturbed tranquility" and "consciousness through equilibrium" in the works of the Hindu Patanjali and Buddhaghosa Buddhists respectively, says Charles Rockwell Lanman; and the principles of Aparigraha (lacking will, no craving, simple living) and hermitage are discussed in Hinduism and later Jainism.
Early Buddhist text
Werner states, "The Buddha is the founder of his [Yoga] system, though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had gained previously under Yoga teachers of his day." He notes:
But only with Buddhism itself as outlined in the Pali Canon that we can speak of a systematic and comprehensive or even inseparable or systematic school of Yoga practice which is thus the first and oldest that has been preserved for us as a whole.
The chronology of the Pali Pali settlement related to yoga is, however, unclear, just like the ancient Hindu text. Early Buddhist sources such as Majjhima Nik? Yes mentions meditation, while Anguttara Nik? Yes explain Jh? Yins (meditation) that resembles the early Hindu Description of the Muni , Kesins and the meditated hermit, but this meditation practice is not called yoga in these texts. The earliest known discussion of yoga in Buddhist literature, as understood in the modern context, is from the Yog'y Buddhist scriptures? Ra from the 3rd to the 4th century and Visuddhimagga Buddhaghosa from the 4th century to the 5th century.
The yoga system that precedes the Buddhist school is the Jain yoga. But because of the post-Buddhist Jain sources, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and the elements that came from other schools. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems are alluded to in the Upanishads and some of the Pali canonies are lost to time.
Early Buddhist texts describe practices and meditative states, some of which Buddhism borrows from the "rama" of a tradition. The Pali Canon contains three parts in which the Buddha explained pressing the tongue against the ceiling for the purpose of controlling hunger or mind, depending on that part. However, there is no mention of the tongue inserted into the nasopharynx as in the true khecar? mudr? The Buddha uses a posture in which pressure is placed on the perineum with the heel, similar to the modern posture used to stimulate Kundalini.
Uncertainty with chronology
Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation may be derived from the Upanishads tradition. The earliest reference for meditation is in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , one of the oldest Upanishads. Chandogya Upanishad describes five types of vital energy ( prana ). The concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal voices and veins ( nadis ) are also described in the Upanishads. Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of the body and the senses. Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term â € Å"yogaâ € extensively in various ways. In addition to the entire chapter (chapter 6) dedicated to traditional yoga exercises, including meditation, it introduces three prominent types of yoga:
- Karma yoga: Yoga action.
- Bhakti yoga: Yoga devotion.
- Jnana yoga: Yoga knowledge.
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses), with each chapter named as different yoga, illustrating eighteen different yoga. Some scholars divide the Gita into three parts, with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga, and the last six. chapters with 211 shlokas as Jnana yoga; However, this is rough because elements of karma , bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters.
Mahabharata
The description of the early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (cessation yoga) is found in the Mokshadharma section of chapter 12 ( Shanti Parva ) of Mahabharata me. The verses of this section are dated c. 300-200 BC. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the content of empirical awareness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like vichara (fine reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others similar to the Patanjali terminology are mentioned, but not explained. There is no uniform yoga purpose mentioned in Mahabharata . Separation from matter, perceiving Brahman everywhere, entering Brahman etc. Everything is described as a yoga destination. Samkhya and yoga are combined together and some verses describe them as identical. Mokshadharma also explained the initial practice of elemental meditation.
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting individuals ? Tman with the universal Brahman encompassing all things.
Classic Era (200 BC - 500 CE)
This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically composing methods and practices of yoga. Among them, Yoga Sutras Patanjali is considered as the main job.
Classic Yoga
During the period between Mauryan and Gupta era (c.200 BCE-500 CE) schools of Hindu philosophy, Buddhism and Jainism took on the form and coherent yoga philosophy system began to emerge.
Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in the Sanskrit texts dated between 200 BC - 200 CE. Arthashastra Kau'ilya in verse 1.2.10, for example, states that there are three categories of anviksikis (philosophy) - Samkhya (nontheistic), Yoga (theistic) and C? Rv? Ka (atheistic materialism)).
Samkhya
Many traditions in India began to adopt a systematic methodology around the first century AD. Of these, Samkhya is probably one of the oldest philosophies that began to take a systematic form. Patanjali systematic yoga, building them on the basic metaphysics of Samkhya. In the early works, the principles of Yoga come along with Samkhya ideas. Vyasa's comment on Yoga Sutras , also called Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of Sankhya Philosophy ), explains the relationship between the two systems. Both schools have some differences as well. Yoga accepts the concept of a "personal god", while Samkhya develops as a rationalist, non-theistic/atheistic Hindu philosophical system. Sometimes the Patanjali system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradiction with Kapila Nirivara Samkhya .
The parallel between Yoga and Samkhya is so close that Max MÃÆ'¼ller says that "both philosophies are in popular languages ​​distinguished from one another like Samkhya with Samkhya without God."
Yoga Sutra from Patanjali
In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox (who received the Vedic testimony) of a philosophical school. Karel Werner, author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of systematizing yoga begun in the Middle and Upanishad Yoga peaked with the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali .
There are many similarities in the concept in the ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma schools of thought, especially from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century, Larson said. Yoga Sutras Patanjali is the synthesis of these three traditions. From Samkhya, the Yoga Sutra adopted the "reflective affirmation" (adhyavasaya) of the 'prakrti' and 'purusa' (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well as three epistemic methods for get reliable knowledge. From the Abhidharma idea of ​​Buddhism on nirodhasamadhi , showing Larson, Yoga Sutras adopts the pursuit of changing states of consciousness, but unlike the Buddhist concept of no self or soul, Yoga is a physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that the individual has self and soul. The third concept of Yoga Sutra synthesized into his philosophy is the ancient hermitage tradition of meditation and introspection, as well as the ideas of yoga from the central Upanishads like Katha, Shvetashvatara and Maitri.
Yoga Sutras Patanjali is widely regarded as the first compilation of the philosophy of formal yoga. The verses from Yoga Sutra are brief. Many Indian scholars then studied them and published their comments, such as Vyasa Bhashya (about 350-450 CE). Yoga Patanjali is also called the King of yoga. Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in both sutras:
> ???????????????????? (yoga? citta-v? tti-nirodha?) Site - Yoga Sutra 1.2
This short definition depends on the meaning of the three Sanskrit terms. IK Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibitor ( nirodha? ) of the modification ( v? Tti ) of the mind ( citta ) ". Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga restrained thoughts ( Citta ) from taking various forms ( Vrittis )." Edwin Bryant explains that, for Patanjali, "Yoga basically consists of a meditative practice that achieves a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and ultimately reaches a state in which consciousness is not aware of any external object for itself, that is, only aware of its own nature as consciousness that does not mix with other objects. "
If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of nirodha (mental control), then the goal is "unconditional state of niruddha (perfection of the process)", according to Baba Hari Dass. In that context, "yoga implies duality (as in combining two things or principles), the result of yoga is a nondual state", and "as the union of the lower self and the higher Self." The nondual state is characterized by the absence individuality, it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, self-realization, or liberation. "
The Patanjali script also forms the basis for a system called "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight limbed concept comes from the 29th Sutra of Book 2 of Yoga Sutra. They: Yama (Five "abstained"): Ahimsa (Nonviolence, not harming other living beings), Satya (truth, unfounded), Asteya (not stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy, loyalty to one's spouse) , and Aparigraha (non-avarice, non-possiveness).
Yoga and Vedanta
Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving streams of Hindu tradition. They share many thematic principles, concepts and beliefs within themselves, but differ in their degree, style and some of their methods. Epistemologically, Yoga schools receive three tools for reliable knowledge, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways. Yoga debates the monism of Advaita Vedanta. The Yoga School believes that in the moksha state, every individual finds happiness, freeing himself as an independent identity; Advaita Vedanta, on the other hand, believes that in the moksha state, every individual finds a sense of happiness and freedom as part of the Unity with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both argue that the free conscience is remote but transcendent, liberated and self-conscious. Furthermore, Advaita Vedanta school orders the use of Patanjali yoga practices and Upanishads readings for those who seek the highest good, highest freedom and jivanmukti.
The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga associated with Yajnavalkya Veda. It takes a form of dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi, a famous philosopher. This text contains 12 chapters and its origins have been traced to the period between the second century BC and the fourth century AD. Many yoga texts such as Hatha Yoga Pradipika , Kundalini Yoga and Yoga Tattva Upanishad have borrowed verses from or often make reference to Yaj Yavavya . The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight Asanas yoga - Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura, many breathing exercises to cleanse the body, and meditate.
Jainism
According to Tattvarthasutra , the 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech, and body. Umasvati mentions yoga as the cause of "asrava" or the inclusion of karma and one of the important things - samyak caritra - on the road to liberation. In his book Niyamasara , Acarya Kundakunda, explains yoga bhakti - devotion to the path to liberation - as the highest form of devotion. Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of the ascetic and 12 little vows of laity under yoga. This has caused certain Indologists such as Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, in essence, a system of yogic thought that grew into a full religion. The five yamas or limits of the Yoga Sutra Patanjali have similarities with the five main vows of Jainism, which show the history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
The mainstream influence of Hinduism on Jain yoga can be seen in Haribhadra Yogad ??? isamuccaya that describes the eight-level yoga that is influenced by the eight-level yoga of Patanjali.
Yogacara school
In the final phase of ancient India, on the eve of the development of Classical Hinduism, the Yogacara movement emerged during the period of Gupta (4th century to 5th century). Yogacara accepts the name for giving "yoga," a framework for engaging in practices that lead to the way of bodhisattva. The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way of attaining enlightenment.
Medieval (500-1500 CE)
The Middle Ages saw the development of many yoga satellite traditions. Hatha yoga appeared in this period.
Bhakti Movement
The Bhakti Movement is a development in medieval Hinduism that advocates the concept of a personal God (or "Supreme Personality of Godhead"). This movement was initiated by Alvars of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and began to gain influence throughout India in the 12th to 15th centuries. Shaiva and Vaishnava bhakti traditions of integrated aspects of Yoga Sutra, such as practicing meditation practice , with devotion. Bhagavata Purana describes the practice of yoga form called viraha (separation) bhakti . Viraha bhakti emphasizes a pointy concentration on Krishna.
Tantra
Tantra is a yoga genre that emerged in India by the fifth century. George Samuel states, "Tantra" is a controversial term, but can be considered a school whose practice appears in the most complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts around the 10th century. Throughout its history, some ideas from the Tantric school have influenced the Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. The elements of the Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced the medieval functions of Buddhism and Hinduism in East and Southeast Asia.
At the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerges from tantra.
Vajrayana or Tibetan Buddhism
Vajrayana is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantray? Na . The texts were composed from the 7th century and the Tibetan translation was completed in the eighth century. These tantric yoga texts are the main source of Buddhist knowledge imported into Tibet. They are then translated into Chinese and other Asian languages, helping to spread the ideas of Tantric Buddhism. The Buddhist Text of Hevajra Tantra and Cary? Giti introduces the chakra hierarchy. Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.
The practice of tantric yoga includes asanas and breathing exercises. The Nyingma tradition practices Yantra yoga (Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breathing (or pranayama), meditative contemplation, and other exercises. In the Nyingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into further stages, such as Kriya yoga, Upa yoga, Yoga yana, Mah? yoga, Anu yoga and Ati yoga. The Sarma Tradition also includes Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with Anuttara yoga classes replacing Mahayoga and Atiyoga.
Zen Buddhism
Zen, a name derived from Sanskrit "dhy? na" through "ch'an" Chinese is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The practice of Yoga is integral to the Zen Buddhist school. Certain important elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.
Hatha Yoga
The earliest reference to hatha yoga is in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century. The earliest definitions of hatha yoga are found in the 11th century Buddhist texts Vimalaprabha , which define them in relation to central channels, bindu, etc. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali Yoga Sutra with posture and breathing exercises. This marks the development of the asanas (plural) into a complete 'posture' now in popular usage and, along with many modern variations, is a style many people associate with today's word yoga.
Sikhism
Various yoga groups have become prominent in Punjab in the 15th and 16th centuries, when Sikhism was at a nascent stage. The composition of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, illustrates the many dialogues he has with Jogis, a Hindu community practicing yoga. Guru Nanak rejects the asceticism, rituals and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga. He poses the path of Sahaja yoga or the Name of yoga (meditation on name ) instead. The Guru Granth Sahib states:
Listen to "O Yogi, Nanak does not say anything but the truth You must discipline your mind The worshipers should meditate on the Word of God, it is his grace that brings unity, he understands, he also sees Good deeds help one join in Divination. "
Modern history
Reception in West
Yoga became the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other Indian philosophical topics. In the context of this novice's interest, N. C. Paul published his book Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851.
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to the western audience, Swami Vivekananda, toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s. The reception received by Swami Vivekananda was built on the intellectual active interest, especially the New England Transcendentalists, among them Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), which attracted German Romanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars such as GWF Hegel (1770 - 1831), August brothers Wilhelm Schlegel (1767-1845) and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), Max Mueller (1823-1900), Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860), and others (who have various levels) of interest in Indian matters.
Theosophists also had a major influence on the American public's view of Yoga. The present esoteric view at the end of the nineteenth century provides further basis for the reception of Vedanta and Yoga with the theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical. The acceptance of Yoga and Vedanta is so intertwined with one another and with (largely Neoplatonic based) the current reform and transformation of religion and philosophy throughout the nineteenth and early nineteenth century. M. Eliade, rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions, brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with a strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. With the introduction of the Tantric tradition and the philosophy of Yoga, the "transcendent" conception that Yoga practice must achieve shifts from experiencing "transcendence" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.
The American-born Yogi by the name of Pierre Arnold Bernard, after his journey through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal, founded Tantric Order of America in 1905. His teachings gave many Westerners their first view into the practice of yoga and tantra.
Modern scientific studies of yoga began with the works of N. C. Paul and Major D. Basu at the end of the 19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra (1897-1989) and Swami Kuvalayananda. Western medical researchers came to Swami Kuvalayananda's Health and Yoga Research Center in Kaivalyanda, starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science.
Beyond the Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions of Asia, the term "yoga" is usually identical with asanas (postures) or as a form of practice. This aspect of Yoga was adopted as a cultural trend in Europe and North America beginning in the first half of the 20th century. There is a period of criticism and paranoia towards yoga as well. In the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, causing a large number of Neo-Hindu schools that specifically advocated the western public. During this period, most influential Indian yoga teachers came from two schools, namely Sivananda Saraswati (1887-1963) and Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (1888-1989). Hatha yoga teachers active in the west during this period included B.K.S. Iyengar (1918-2014), K. Pattabhi Jois (1915-2009), Swami Vishnu-devananda (1927-1993), and Swami Satchidananda (1914-2002). Yogi Bhajan brought Kundalini Yoga to the United States in 1969. The comprehensive and classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, Samkhya, refined body theory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric elements were included in the yoga teacher training by Baba Hari Dass (1923-), in the United States and Canada.
The second "boom yoga" followed in the 1980s, such as Dean Ornish, follower of Swami Satchidananda, linking yoga with heart health, legitimizing yoga as a pure physical system of health training beyond the counter-cultural or esoteric circle, and not related to anything. denomination of religion. Many asanas look modern, and overlap with the tradition of Western practice of the 19th century and early 20th century.
Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the US has grown. The number of people practicing some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011). It has attracted the support of world leaders such as Barack Obama who stated, "Yoga has become the universal language of spiritual practice in the United States, across many religious and cultural lines,... Every day, millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and well-being That's why we encourage everyone to take part in the PALA (Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge.
The American College of Sports Medicine supports the integration of yoga into healthy individual exercise regimens as long as trained professionals provide instruction. Higher Education cites the promotion of yoga "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and core strength.
Health effects
Yoga has been studied and may be recommended to promote relaxation, reduce stress and improve some medical conditions such as premenstrual syndrome. Yoga is considered a low-impact activity that can provide the same benefits as "a well-designed exercise program, improving general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving conditions caused by a less mobile lifestyle." It is primarily promoted as regular physical therapy, and as a regimen to strengthen and balance all parts of the body.
Yoga can improve psychological health during cancer treatment, although more evidence is needed to confirm this possible benefit. Other studies have shown that yoga can be useful in addition to other treatments in schizophrenia, and may have a positive effect on mental health, although the quality of research to determine this effect is low.
In 2015 the Australian Government Health Department publishes a review of alternative therapies that seek to determine whether they are suitable for health insurance coverage. Yoga is one of the 17 evaluated practices that found no clear evidence of effectiveness. By 2017, the Australian government calls yoga a practice that is not eligible for insurance subsidies, saying it will "ensure that taxpayers' funds are issued appropriately and not directed to untested therapies."
Adult
While some medical communities consider the results of yoga research as significant, others point to many shortcomings that undermine results. Most research on yoga has taken the form of early studies or low quality methodological clinical trials, including small sample sizes, inadequate disguises, lack of randomisation, and high risk of bias. Overview 2013 illustrates the effectiveness of yoga for low back pain in the short term, and moderate evidence that it is effective in the long run. Another study found the incidence of back injury due to yoga.
Some doctors have reported research investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients to reduce depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to improve anxiety control. Others question the quality of research and the uncertainty in proving this effect.
The systematic review and meta-analysis of 2016 found no evidence that yoga is effective for metabolic syndrome.
Physical injury
Some yoga practitioners suffer physical injuries similar to sports injuries. A survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% suffered physical injuries while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of respondents suffered from injuries that caused prolonged pain or needed medical care. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half-lotus (sitting position cross-legged), bend forward, bend to back, and handstand produce the greatest number of injuries.
Among the main reasons experts suggest to cause negative effects of yoga are the competitiveness of beginners and the lack of qualified instructors. As demand for yoga classes grows, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not all newly certified instructors can evaluate the condition of each new trainee in their class and recommend not to pose or use appropriate props to avoid injury. In turn, an early yoga student can overestimate their bodily abilities and attempt to pose ahead before their bodies are flexible or strong enough to do that.
Dissection of the vertebral artery, tears in the arteries in the neck that provide blood to the brain can occur due to neck rotation when the neck is extended. This can happen in a variety of contexts, but is an event that can occur in some yoga practices. This is a very serious condition that can cause a stroke.
Acetabular labral tears, damage to structures that combine with the femur and hip, have been reported to have resulted from yoga exercises.
Children
It is said that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, attention, and stress relief: many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their Physical Education program. Encinitas, a California school district, obtained the approval of San Diego Superior Court Judge to use yoga in Physical Education, arresting against parents who claim the practice is essentially religious and therefore should not be part of a state-funded program.
Reception in other religions
Christianity
Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. It has been attributed to the desire to experience God in a more complete way. In 2013, Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli, serving the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, has worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI), saying that for his Meditation, a Christian can learn from other religious traditions (zen, yoga). , controlled respiration, Mantra), quoting Aspects of Christian meditation: "Just as" the Catholic Church does not reject anything that is true and sacred in these religions, "neither should these be rejected from the hand simply because they are not Christians on the contrary, one can take from them what is useful as long as the Christian conception of prayer, its logic and requirements is never obscured.In the context of all this that these pieces must be taken and restated. "Previously, the Roman Catholic Church, and some Christian organizations others have expressed concern and disagreement regarding some Eastern and New Age practices that include yoga and meditation.
In 1989 and 2003, the Vatican issued two documents: Aspects of Christian meditation and "Christian Reflections on the New Age," which were mostly critical of Eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90 page handbook detailing the Vatican's position. The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspect of meditation "can turn into a cult of the body" and equate the state of the body with mysticism "can also cause psychic disorder and, at times, against moral perversion." As has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposes the gnostic belief that salvation comes not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge. The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] can be enriched by the method of meditation developed in other religions and cultures" but retains the idea that "there must be a match between the nature of [other approaches] to Christian prayer and belief about the ultimate reality. "Some fundamentalist Christian organizations regarded yoga as incompatible with their religious background, regarded it as part of a New Age movement inconsistent with Christianity.
Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. It is held by an interdenominational association of Christians who practice it. "This ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that retains, promotes, and promotes the activities of religious groups and screens that allow institutional boundaries to be crossed."
Islam
In the early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India, living with Hinduism for 16 years, and with their help translated some significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of them is Yogasutras Patanjali. Al Biruni's translation preserves many of the core themes of the philosophy of Yoga Pata ± i jali, but certain sutras and analytical comments are restated to be more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology. Yoga Al Biruni version reached Persia and Arabian peninsula around the year 1050 AD. Then, in the 16th century, the yoga texts used Amritakunda were translated into Arabic and then Persian. Yoga, however, is not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. The minority of Islamic sects such as the mystical Sufi movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted the practice of Indian yoga, including posture and breath control. Muhammad Ghawth, a Shattari Sufi and one of the sixteenth-century translators of yoga texts, attracted controversy because of his interest in yoga and being persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.
The top Islamic body of Malaysia in 2008 issued a fatwa, banning Muslims from practicing yoga, saying that it has Hindu elements and that its practice is blasphemy, therefore it is haram. Some Muslims in Malaysia who have practiced yoga for years, criticize the decision as "insulting." Sisters in Islam, a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said yoga is just a form of practice. This fatwa is legally enforceable. However, the Malaysian prime minister explains that yoga as a physical exercise is permissible, but religious mantra chanting is forbidden.
In 2009, the Council of Ulama, an Islamic body in Indonesia, issued a fatwa prohibiting yoga on the grounds that it contained Hindu elements. These fatwa, in turn, have been criticized by Darul Uloom Deoband, a Deobandi Islamic seminary in India. The same fatwa that prohibits yoga, due to its connection with Hinduism, was issued by the Great Mufti Ali Gomaa in Egypt in 2004, and by Islamic scholars in Singapore earlier.
In Iran, in May 2014, according to the Yoga Association, there are about 200 yoga centers in the country, a quarter of them in the capital Tehran, where groups are often seen practicing in the park. This has been met by opposition among conservatives. In May 2009, the head of the Directorate of Religious Affairs of Turkey, Ali Bardako? Lu, discounting personal development techniques such as reiki and yoga as a commercial enterprise that can lead to extremism. His comments made in the context of reiki and yoga may be a form of proselytization at the expense of Islam.
International Yoga Day
On December 11, 2014, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution establishing June 21 as "International Day of Yoga", following calls for adoption by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his speech to the UN General Assembly on 27 September 2014. In suggesting one of two solstices, Modi notes that it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and that it has a special meaning in many parts of the world.
The first International Day of Yoga is observed worldwide on June 21, 2015. Approximately 35,000 people, including Modi and many officials, performed 21 35-minute yoga asanas at Rajpath in New Delhi. Days devoted to yoga are observed by millions around the world. The event at Rajpath made two Guinness records - the largest Yoga Class with 35,985 people and a record for most of the participating citizens in it - 84.
See also
- List of asanas
- List of yoga schools
- Yoga Series
- Yogis
Note
References
Source
Further reading
- De Michelis, Elizabeth (2005). History of Modern Yoga . Continuum. Ã,
- Kenny, Molly (2001). Integrated Movement Therapy . Continuum.
External links
- Yoga EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica entry
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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