Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia are characterized by poor access levels and poor service quality. More than 40 million people do not have access to better water sources and more than 110 million of Indonesia's 240 million people do not have access to improved sanitation. Only about 2% of people have access to sewerage in urban areas; this is one of the lowest in the world among middle income countries. Water pollution is widespread in Bali and Java. Women in Jakarta reported spending US $ 11 per month on boiling water, implying a significant burden on the poor.
An estimate of the level of public investment of only US $ 2 per capita per year in 2005 is not sufficient to expand services significantly and to retain assets appropriately. Furthermore, fragmented policy responsibilities are among the various Ministries. Since decentralization was introduced in Indonesia in 2001 local governments (districts) have gained responsibility for water supply and sanitation. However, so far it has not been translated into improved access or quality of services, especially since the devolution of responsibilities has not been followed by adequate funding mechanisms for carrying out this responsibility. Local utilities remain weak.
The provision of clean drinking water has unfortunately not been taken as a development priority, especially at the provincial government level. Lack of access to clean water and sanitation remains a serious challenge, especially in slum and rural areas. This is a major problem because the lack of clean water reduces the level of hygiene in the community and also increases the likelihood of people affected by skin diseases or other waterborne diseases. Failure to aggressively promote behavioral change, especially among low-income families and slum dwellers, has further aggravated the health impacts of the water and sanitation situation in Indonesia.
Video Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia
Water and usage resources
Indonesia has more than 5,590 rivers, mostly short and steep. Because of the high rainfall intensity most rivers carry large amounts of sediment. Rainfall averages above 2,000 mm in most islands, except the Lesser Sunda Islands where 1,500 mm. 80% of rain falls during the rainy season (October to April). While water resources are quite abundant in Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Irian, water shortages occur during the dry season in parts of Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Especially in Java, the dry season is not sufficient to meet demand, leading to irrigation shortages. Irrigation accounts for 93% of water use. Total storage capacity reaches only 5% to 6% of river flow. Construction of reservoirs is limited by the lack of a good reservoir site, high population density at possible reservoir sites and expected short-life reservoirs due to sediment. Potential groundwater in Indonesia is very limited. However, many of the eastern islands depend on ground water because of the scarcity of surface water. Ground water exploitation occurs in densely populated Java coastal areas, including in Jakarta and Semarang. In Jakarta it has caused sea water intrusion up to 10 km from the coast and land subsidence at the rate of 2-34 cm/year in east Jakarta. In Semarang, land subsidence occurs at a rate of 9 cm/year.
Water abstract water utility from rivers and lakes (60%), springs (25%) and groundwater (15%). For example, the main water source for Jakarta is the Jatiluhur Dam on the Citarum River, 70 km southeast of the city. For those who are self-sufficient or receive water from community-based organizations, shallow groundwater and springs are by far the main source of water on most islands. In Sumatra and Irian, however, rainwater harvest is also an important source of water.
Pollution. The domestic waste, industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and solid waste are wrong in the management is the polluting surface and groundwater, especially in Java. Indonesia is among the worst countries in Asia in terms of sewerage and sanitation. Some cities in Indonesia even have minimal sanitation system. The absence of an established sanitation network forces many households to rely on private septic tanks or dispose of their waste directly into rivers and canals. The latter practice similarities, along with the prevalence of contaminated shallow wells used for urban drinking water supplies, have caused epidemics of repeated gastrointestinal infections.
Domestic Waste . According to the Water Environment Partnership in Asia (WEPA), only 42.8 percent of 51,372,661 houses in Indonesia have domestic waste treatment. More than half of households dispose of their domestic waste directly to the river body. Data from the World Bank show that in 2008, only 52% of Indonesians had access to sewerage facilities. Such facilities are important because they help minimize human, animal and insect contact with excreta, thereby increasing the level of cleanliness and improving living conditions for slum dwellers. Without proper development and maintenance of facilities, domestic wastes are ineffectively disposed and increase the rate of degradation of water resources.
Industrial Waste . Wastewater industry activities such as small scale industries, agriculture, textiles, pulp and paper, petrochemicals, mining and oil and gas also contribute to the decline of water quality in Indonesia. Water quality at sites close to the mining area is potentially contaminated by heavy metals such as mercury (Hg). According to WEPA, several levels of mercury (Hg) concentration have been detected in 9 of 16 sampling points and the highest level of dissolved mercury in one of these areas reaches 2.78 ug/l.
Therefore, the results of water quality monitoring in 30 rivers in Indonesia show that most of the river water quality does not meet the criteria of first class water, that is water that can be used for raw water, drinking water and/or other uses requiring the same water. quality with such use, due to pollution by domestic and industrial waste (raw drinking water under Government Regulation No. 82, 2001, Water Quality Management and Wastewater Control).
Maps Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia
Access
Source : Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO/UNICEF
Data on access to water and sanitation in Indonesia varies depending on the sources consulted and the definition of access. According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF (see table above) access to improved water sources reached 82% and access to good sanitation by 54% in 2010.
Indonesia has one of the lowest wastewater coverage levels in Asia with only 2 percent access in urban areas. Most excreta and wastewater are disposed of without treatment or semi-treated to local water courses or water bodies, causing enormous environmental contamination. Dense housing, severe seasonal flooding and choking drains with unscathed solid waste exacerbate the problem. According to the World Bank, urban sanitation is the least discussed key policy issue in Indonesia. In rural areas, access to improved sanitation has increased from 24% in 1990 to 44% in 2010. In 2010, 11% used shared latrines, 10% used unhealthy openings and 35% defecation in fields , beach and water bodies.
Service quality
No data is available about the continuation of the average water supply in cities in Indonesia. However, in Jakarta 92% of users received sustainable water supplies in 2001. Regarding drinking water quality, about 30% of the water distributed by water companies in the country is contaminated with E. coli or fecal coliform and other pathogens. Results of drinking water quality tests are not published. Most Indonesians do not dare to drink water directly from the tap and boil water or buy bottled water, if they can afford it.
Health effects of inadequate water and sanitation supplies
Unsafe drinking water is the main cause of diarrhea, which is the second major killer of toddlers in the country and accounts for about 20% of child deaths annually. Every year, at least 300 out of 1,000 Indonesians suffer from water-borne diseases, including cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever, according to the Ministry of Health. The World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) in 2008 revealed that poor sanitation, including poor hygiene, caused at least 120 million episodes of illness as well as 50,000 premature deaths each year. Significant damage to the country's potential future in terms of infant mortality and child malnutrition in low-income areas in Indonesia is strongly associated with inadequate access to clean water and basic sanitation.
Domestic drinking water treatment
People in Jakarta spend significant resources on boiling water to make it drinkable. Indonesian women report spending of more than 100,000 rupiah or 11 dollars per month for kerosene for boiling water. However, the new system for treating drinking water at household level without boiling has reduced this cost and reduced health risks among women and children. The system, called "Air RahMat" or "water gift," is produced by a private-public partnership called Aman Tirta. Aman Tirta's members include Johns Hopkins University and CARE International Indonesia. The brand name refers to a 1.25% sodium hypochlorite (bleach) solution that is effective in disabling micro-organisms such as E. coli in water. The solution was originally developed as part of the Safe Water Systems program of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the US. When used properly in conjunction with proper storage, water treatment solutions have been shown to reduce the risk of diarrhea by up to 85%. Air RahMat is also able to protect water for two to three days from recontamination. The solution is easy to use by adding three milliliters of Water Grace for every 20 liters of water, shaking or stirring for 30 seconds, and waiting at least 30 minutes until the water is ready to be drunk.
Economic impact of inadequate water supply and sanitation
The economic costs associated with inadequate water supply and unhealthy conditions are major obstacles to improved living standards. The enormous economic costs resulting from chronic illness can contribute to malnutrition, poor school performance, decreased productivity, and permanent disability and hence an obstacle in economic development.
One of the key findings of the Sanitation Initiative Economic with the Water and Sanitation program of Southeast Asia reveals that in 2006, Indonesia lost approximately US $ 6.3 billion due to poor sanitation and hygiene, equivalent to about 2 , 3% of gross domestic product (GDP). From the impacts evaluated, health and water resources contribute most to the overall economic losses estimated in this study. These impacts are expected to cause financial losses for people who have to pay for health services or who pay more to access clean water supplies, or who may lose income due to poor health. Poor sanitation also contributes up to $ 1.2 billion per year in the welfare loss of the population due to the additional time needed to access improper sanitation, $ 166 million per year in tourism losses, and $ 96 million in environmental losses due to loss of productive land.
Efforts to provide adequate water supply and sanitation facilities in Indonesia are also opposed by an increase in the country's population which causes delays in investment in the infrastructure needed for urban water supply and sanitation. Such challenges can lead to greater costs in the future.
Responsibility for water and sanitation
Policies and regulations
Policies and regulatory responsibilities for the water and sanitation sector are shared among several ministries. While the Ministry of Health is responsible for aspects related to water quality, and to some extent rural services, the responsibility for the urban sector is shared between the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of Public Works. The National Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) has a role in investment planning. The Ministry of Industry and Trade also has some responsibility for the regulation of bottled water. The National Water Supply and Sanitation Working Group (WSS Working Group) coordinates between departments and with donors and other stakeholders. The working group has no legal basis, or secure funding.
Strategies and policies . Most of the strategies for this sector are formulated at the national level. Capacity issues, funding constraints and political factors at the sub-national level often mean that national strategies are not well implemented. Furthermore, law enforcement is weak, especially for environmental sanitation. In 2009 the Ministry of Public Works and the National Development Planning Agency, Bappenas, launched a road map called "Acceleration of Sanitation Development in Human Settlements" (PPSP) 2010-2014. The roadmap targets 330 municipalities with sanitation issues, and aims to remove defecation, increase solid waste management and reduce flooding. It predicts the construction of a new and expanded sewerage network in 16 cities, covering 5 million people, and a community-based decentralized wastewater management system in each city, covering 6 million people. The latter system, called Community Sanitation by Community, includes an environmental level drainage system with small wastewater treatment plants, usually using Anaerobic Batch Reactor technology. The system is fully operated by a community-based organization that collects user fees. According to research conducted in 2011, community-based organizations operate the system well enough, but can not undertake major maintenance such as mud disposal from wastewater treatment plants or post-disaster recovery. In addition to the decentralized waterway system, the government also supports the construction of public toilets, although people prefer to have private toilets. Community toilets are a good alternative where individual toilets are not feasible, especially in areas that are often flooded, where most residents are inhabitants or where there are severe space constraints and densely populated slums.
In 2008, the Ministry of Health launched a National Strategy for Total Community Based Sanitation, which emphasizes peer pressure and shame as a driver for rural sanitation and not public investment. The Government's National Program for Community Empowerment (PNPM - National Program for Community Empowerment ) also has the potential to improve water and sanitation services through grants, technical assistance and training to the community. However, similar similar programs in the past only allocated about five percent of the funds for water and sanitation.
Legal framework . Relevant legislation including Law no. 7/2004 on water resources; UU no. 22/1999 on regional government; Law No.32/2004 on Regional Government; and Law No.33/2004 on Fiscal Balance between Central and Regional. Water resources law aims for the management of integrated and sustainable water resources and clarifies central government and provincial and district government responsibilities in water resources management, such as granting water abstraction permits. Local government legislation is a landmark in terms of decentralization in Indonesia after the fall of Suharto, making previous rhetorical commitments to decentralization come true by transferring all powers except for certain special mention of power to the local government. The fiscal balance law greatly increases the revenue base for local governments. Relevant implementation rules include Government Regulation No.16/2005 "on the development of water supply systems", enabling private sector participation in water supply; two decisions by the Ministry of Public Works from 2006 and 2007 to establish the National Water Council; and Decree of the Minister of Home Affairs. 23/2006 on guidelines for regulating water rates. The latter stipulates that tariffs should fully recover the cost including a 10 percent rate of return. Decision No.47/1999 of the Ministry of Home Affairs on guidelines for evaluating the performance of drinking water service providers (benchmarking) has now lost some of its teeth due to subsequent decentralization policies. Decisions by the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Industry and Trade regulate the quality of bottled water, as well as for water kiosks that fill large water bottles.
Terms of service
Urban area
Provision of water services in urban areas is the responsibility of PDAM (Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum), PDAM. There are 319 PDAMs in Indonesia. Two (Jakarta and North Sumatra) operate at the provincial government level. All others operate at the district government level, which means at the district level (existing 349) or cities (existing 91) (see List of districts and cities in Indonesia) Most PDAMs are very small, with fewer than 10 000 connections: only four percent has more than 50 000 connections. The institutional responsibility for waste water and sewerage is at the district government level; department responsibilities vary across districts. Very few urban utilities provide sanitation services. Sanitation facilities are called PD-PAL or Municipal Wastewater Utilities Owned by Local Government.
Some smaller PDAMs have linked themselves under the Public-Private Partnership. The first partnership was created under the provincial government of North Sumatra in 1999, involving six PDAMs led by utilities in Tirtanadi. Another partnership of 11 PDAMs was established in Eastern Indonesia along with the Dutch water company WMD.
In 2011, 29 regions have signed contracts with private companies to operate, and sometimes also to finance, their water infrastructure. The largest contract is two concession contracts in Jakarta (see Water privatization in Jakarta). Most other contracts are relatively small with water sales of less than 100,000 cubic meters per day. In some cases they are management contracts without investment responsibility, such as at Panaikang-Massakar in Sulawesi. In many cases, private companies also finance some infrastructure, such as water treatment plants, under the Build Operate Transfer contract. This is the case in Medan in North Sumatra and Bandung in West Java. Most private partners are Indonesian companies, such as property developers of Bakrieland or water companies Acuatico, or foreign companies such as Singapore-based engineering company Moya Asia. The central government promotes public-private partnerships in water supply through partial guarantees and subsidies. However, in 2011 many PPP projects had to be canceled due to the difficulty of negotiating provisions between central, local and local government.
The associated utilities are in Perpamsi, the national water utility association created in 1972. The association has 394 member companies serving 24% of the Indonesian population. In 2003 Perpamsi started a benchmarking performance program with support from the World Bank. The current database contains 115 PDAMs in Indonesia, including most of the larger ones.
Rural area
Rural Indonesia has a long history of community-run water supply services using natural springs, rainwater and ground water sources. However, the capacity of communities to maintain such a water system in the long run tends to be limited. Past rural water supply and sanitation projects are often insufficiently invested in building the capacity of communities to plan, implement, operate and maintain services in a way that benefits and satisfies all parts of the rural community, the conditions necessary for service sustainability. Rural consumers have not consistently offered voice and choice in decisions related to building and managing services and paying for them. Services are often provided top-down by agencies outside the community, using public sector funds or donors and responsible contractors to government agencies rather than to service users. This leads to a discrepancy between what the user wants and obtains, the lack of community ownership of rural water supply and sanitation facilities and unclear maintenance responsibilities.
In 2003 the government endorsed, but did not adopt a National Policy for the Development of Water Supply and Sanitation Facilities and Services Providing a roadmap for sector reform, with:
- Changing the policy objectives for the sector, from achieving "calculated target" calculated in terms of building a system facility, to the twin objectives of sustainability and effective use of water and sanitation services;
- Support strategies such as empowering communities to choose, co-finance, build and manage and own their water systems;
- Require the use of gender-sensitive and poverty-sensitive approaches in working with and empowering the user community to ensure poverty targeting and impact on local poverty;
- Building stakeholder understanding at all levels of service sustainability;
- Measuring success in terms of sustainable population access to services, and effective use of such services, ie the use of hygienic services and promoting health by all parts of society and improvement of sanitation and hygiene behavior among different age-sex groups of the population.
Community participation and cost recovery under the new approach have resulted in greater service sustainability. For example, the evaluation of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project supported by the Asian Development Bank that has not adopted a new approach reveals that less than four years after the completion of the project, only 30 percent of the water supply facilities and 30 percent of the sanitation facilities built by the project are still functioning. However, according to a Ministry of Health report reviewing the functionality of water infrastructure in five districts that have implemented WSLIC projects supported by the World Bank from 2001 to 2006, the average function of public water utilities is 72 percent. Significant differences in functionality between ADB and WSLIC activities are largely attributed to community participation in infrastructure and community development that recover monthly costs to cover the cost of maintaining water and sanitation systems.
However, in rural areas or rural areas increasingly absorbed in urban conglomerates, community management alone can not be an adequate arrangement. According to the World Bank, a newer model of support and sharing of responsibilities between user communities and local government or local private sector institutions is required.
Civil society
Civil society groups, both locally and internationally, play an important role in this sector. Some of them have implemented water and sanitation programs in districts that have not received any form of government support in this sector. Regardless of its diversity, it is largely aligned in their approach. Yet very few work through the system of government. Other civil society groups, including religious leaders in the village community, play an important role in the success of a community-based approach. Religious leaders support community cohesion and influence and encourage clean and healthy behaviors to complement water and sanitation infrastructure.
Recent history and developments
The first PDAMs in Indonesia, called PDAMs after their Indonesian acronym, were established during the colonial period in the early 20th century. After independence in 1945 they became part of the local government. In the 1970s, the central government became more involved in their financing and management. In 1987, an act of the government handed over water supplies to local governments, but in reality the central government remained very involved. It was only after the fall of Suharto in 1998 that serious efforts in decentralization were made with local government legislation in 1999 that effectively delegated responsibility for water supply to local governments.
Jakarta's privatization . In June 1997 two 25-year water concessions were awarded without offer to serve the city of Jakarta from February 1998. The subsidiary of the French company Ondeo (now Suez), called Palyja, was awarded a concession for the western part of the city. and a subsidiary of a British company called Thames Water International called TPJ granted concessions to the eastern part.
Policies for rural water supply and sanitation . In 2003 the government adopted a National Policy for the Development of Drinking Water Facilities and Environmental Sanitation Facilities and Services which provides a clear route map for sector reform (for details see above).
Efficiency
Non-revenue water (NRW) at Indonesia's best utility only reaches 20%, while the largest quartile of utilities participating in the Perpamsi benchmarking exercise has 43% NRW. However, NRW data is generally unreliable because many PDAMs do not have meters installed to accurately measure NRW. In terms of labor productivity, the best performing utility has a staff ratio of 4 per 1000 connections, while the utility in the worst quartile has more than 9 staff per 1000 connections. Labor productivity for water utilities is considered to be at an acceptable level if below 5 per 1000 connections. In Jakarta the non-revenue water level was 51% in 2001, one of the highest rates in Indonesia. However, in terms of labor productivity, two utilities in Jakarta tariff relatively well with only 5.3 employees per 1000 connections.
Recovery and tariff charges
Ministry of Home Affairs Decree no. 23/2006 establishes a full cost recovery policy through tariff revenue for drinking water companies. The decree set an improved water tariff with the first subsidized tariff block for consumption of up to 10 cubic meters per household, and a break even rate for higher consumption. Commercial and industrial users may be charged a higher rate with a higher block at a full tariff. However, in fact, some utilities recover their costs. According to a 2005 study by the Ministry of Public Works, most PDAMs face financial problems. Only about a third of tariff increases between 1998 and 2005. One-third of utilities have foreign debt, whose value in local currency increased substantially because of the rupee devaluation in the 1998 financial crisis. Many PDAMs failed in the loans they received from the Ministry of Finance. In 2009 renegotiations of these loans (principal, interest and penalty) were still in progress, thus cutting utilities from new government loans.
According to the Asian Development Bank, in Jakarta, the average rate in 2001 (average residential and commercial users) was US $ 0.29/m3, compared to the estimated production cost of only US $ 0.11/m3. 98% of the collected revenue is collected. According to these figures, at least the Jakarta utility managed to recover its costs. Since then the tariff has been increased several times and, according to the International Benchmark Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities, reached US $ 0.77/m3.
As in many other countries, those who are not connected to the water supply network pay the most for water. A survey in North Jakarta found that water prices in the early 1990s were $ 2.62/m3 for vendor subscribers, $ 1.26/m3 for standpipe customers, $ 1.08/m3 for household resale customers, and only $ 0.18/m3 for connected households.
Investment and Financing
The water and sanitation sector is not given high priority at the national or sub-national level, partly because of competing priorities from other sectors such as health and education. Some local governments use their own resources to carry out water and sanitation activities and when funded through open-menu infrastructure programs, governments and local communities seldom opt for water and sanitation as the main activities. Much of the funding for this sector comes from the national level and subnational funding levels are often hidden when it occurs in some government departments. Funding estimates for this sector in 2008 are about one to two percent of the local government budget.
Public investment . Total infrastructure spending in Indonesia was 55 trillion Rupiah in 2005 (US $ 5.7 billion). This expenditure was financed mainly by local governments (23 trillion Rupiah) and central government (also 23 trillion Rupiah), followed by the provincial government (9 trillion Rupiah). Infrastructure investment accounts for 10% of total government spending, as shown in the Table below.
Source: Calculations based on [Bank Indonesia Public Finance Data Page]. All figures in current trillion Rupiah for 2005.
While it is not entirely clear how much of this amount has been invested in water supply and sanitation, ADB estimates that only US $ 124 million per year (average 2004-2005) of the regular national budget is allocated for water supply and sanitation.
Since decentralization in 2001, local governments typically invest less than 2% of their annual budgets for water supplies, even less for sanitation and hardly anything to improve hygiene practices. Assuming that 2% of local government (provincial and district) budgets are spent on water and sanitation, local government investment in water and sanitation is 3.6 trillion Rupiah or US $ 375 million or about three times higher than US $ 124 million which are financed through the central budget. Thus, the total investment can be tentatively estimated at approximately US $ 500 million, or slightly more than one source would estimate as the investment required to meet the MDGs, or US $ 450 million per year. Around US $ 2 per capita and this year's investment remains much lower than investments in water and sanitation in other middle-income countries.
The economic crisis of the late 1990s has greatly reduced investment in infrastructure. Central government spending on development fell from US $ 14 billion in 1994 to US $ 5 billion in 2002, where the share of infrastructure spending declined from 57 to 30% over the same period. In addition, according to the World Bank, poor institutional and regulatory frameworks and rampant corruption in the infrastructure sector, prevalent even before the crisis, continue without serious government sector reform efforts to date.
Financing utilities . Credit financing for PDAM faces many challenges. For example, the Ministry of Finance requires loans to be channeled through local governments whose legislatures should promise central government transfers as collateral. Because the regional legislature is reluctant to do so, central government borrowing for utilities is unlikely to reappear even after the old debt problems will be resolved. Two attempts to promote the issuance of corporate bonds with a creditable utility, backed by partial guarantees by USAID and others by KfW, have failed "because of a culture that avoids risks that are so widespread in Indonesia's central and local government," according to a USAID report. Under the Presidential Decree of 2009, state banks can provide partial credit guarantees of 70% of loans to creditworthy PDAMs plus interest subsidies. As for direct loans by the Ministry of Finance, local governments must provide partial collateral for these loans, which they are reluctant to provide.
Thus, PDAMs are likely to be limited in their access to finance the vast majority of grants, which are rare. In 2009 there were three main sources of national government grant funding for water supply:
- Bailout (grant) to local government. Water supply is expected to receive a Rp3 trillion grant from the national budget between 2010 and 2014, supplemented by funds from external donors.
- The Special Allocation Fund (DAK), which accounts for 2.4% of the national budget in 2009, of which about 5% is directed to the water supply sector, in particular a community-based village system.
- Grants by the Ministry of Public Works for raw water supply and maintenance.
Microfinance . Bank Negara Indonesia provides small loans to community-based organizations (CBOs) engaged in water supply in Java. The pilot project is part of a national program called People's Business Credit that provides loans to communities and small businesses. The World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program in collaboration with the AusAID-funded Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative (INDII), the Ministry of Public Works, and the Directorate of Public Private Partnership Development of the National Development Planning Agency provide technical assistance to CBOs.
External cooperation
External support for the water and sanitation sector in Indonesia is provided through the multilateral (World Bank, Asian Development Bank and UN) and bilateral cooperation with individual countries. Most external partners have focused their cooperation in rural areas, or working exclusively there. Most of the support for urban areas comes from Japan, the Netherlands and the United States.
Multilateral cooperation
Asian Development Bank . The Health Services and Public Health Project, approved in 2005, aims to provide clean water and sanitation facilities for approximately 1,500 rural communities of Indonesia, including tsunami-affected areas. Directorate General of Communicable Disease Control and Environmental Health from the Ministry of Health is the project implementing agency
UNICEF . UNICEF supports the Indonesian government in developing and implementing strategies that improve drinking water and sanitation conditions across the country. UNICEF also assists the government in improving the relevant planning mechanisms, monitoring systems and databases.
World Bank . The Third Water Supply and Sanitation Project for Low-Income Communities in the World, approved in 2006, aims to increase the number of rural and low-income suburban residents who access improved water and sanitation facilities and practice better hygiene practices. The project supports community-driven development planning (CDD) and management of water improvement, sanitation and hygiene programs, builds stakeholder commitments and aims to expand the capacity of central, provincial and district government agencies. It provides participating communities with a menu of technical options for rural water supply and public sanitation infrastructure. This project is implemented by the Ministry of Health.
The World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) focuses primarily on knowledge management and strategy development in sanitation. Between 2006 and 2010 the WSP, with funding from Sweden and the Netherlands, resulted in increased political commitment to sanitation and enhanced national government capacity for sanitation planning through the "Indonesian Sanitation Sector Development Program" (ISSDP). This leads to a coherent policy framework for urban sanitation, where major investments are underway from 2010 onwards.
Bilateral cooperation
Australia . Australia has supported efforts to improve rural water supply and sanitation in Indonesia, particularly Eastern Indonesia, for nearly 30 years. AusAID's support is in the form of a grant for technical assistance for the WASPOL (WASPOL) Water and Sanitation Action Planning Project (WASPOL) from the World Bank Water and Sanitation Program (WSP), and for Water and Sanitation Second for Low Communities. The Community Income Program (WSLIC2), also funded primarily by the World Bank. A 2009 evaluation by the Australian government concluded that Australia's water supply assistance "has been strategic, flexible and precise" and has helped "provide sustainable water supply for around 4.6 million people and has dramatically improved sector coordination at national and sub-national level. "The evaluation also noted that the focus on sanitation is much less, although the Government has begun to replicate an innovative Community-Based Total Sanitation approach in an effort to reach an indiscriminate defecation (ODF) community. The report also notes that "national working groups established through WASPOLA have strengthened government capacity in research, communications, marketing and public relations", but that this approach is poorly integrated at the sub-national level. It also notes that "although the funding is relatively low for this sector compared to some other donors and multilateral institutions, Australia is seen as a major donor." It also notes that AusAID-supported technical assistance "relies heavily on external consultants and has not built sufficient technical capacity into government to ensure sustainability." Women's participation at the local level is mandatory in the project, but once the project's handover takes place, women's participation often declines. Community-managed approaches "increase transparency and accountability", but districts do not use this model in their own projects due to lack of capacity and political will.
Canada . CARE Canada and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) support the CARE-Sulawesi Rural Community Development Project (SRCD). CARE uses a "community management approach", where communities are heavily involved from the beginning, from design to construction, implementation, operation, and maintenance. This approach works by establishing village water committees and a series of subcommittees: for example, sanitation, construction and finance. The village itself decides how to increase the amount of money needed for its contribution to the project. This is usually done with monthly levies where each family accounts for a small amount of money for four to six months. The village construction committee also arranged for workers to install the system. All work is done manually without the use of heavy machinery, which means low environmental impact and lower cost. With close water, most households also build their own simple latrines.
Dutch . Public drinking water company Drenthe (WMD) Canadian Water Company and Dutch development assistance support various water companies in Eastern Indonesia. The cooperation contract has been agreed with four companies (Ambon, Bacau (Maluku), Biak, Sorong (Irian Jaya/Papua).The negotiations have occurred with seven other companies in North Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua.WMD has ordered 3.4 million euros for the project.
United States . Since early 2005 USAID has provided technical assistance to water utilities (PDAMs) in Java and Sumatra on issues related to full cost recovery tariffs and improved technical operations, with the aim of improving their creditworthiness and ability to borrow to meet the needs of network expansion. USAID is also looking for ways to use a partial credit guarantee mechanism to further improve local PDAM access to commercial finance.
See also
- Environmental issues in Indonesia
References
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