Unethical human experiments are human experiments that violate the principles of medical ethics, such as the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki. This has been done by countries including Nazi Germany, the Empire of Japan, North Korea, the Iraqi Baath, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Examples include Project MKUltra, Unit 731, and Josef Mengele's experiments.
The Helsinki Declaration, developed by the World Medical Association (WMA), is widely regarded as a grounding document on the ethics of human research.
Video Unethical human experimentation
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany conducted human experiments on a large number of prisoners (including children), mostly Jews from all over Europe, but also Romani, Sinti, Polish, Soviet POWs, homosexuals and German defects, in concentration camps especially in the early 1940s , during World War II and the Holocaust. Prisoners are forced to participate; they are unwilling to volunteer and no consent is given for the procedure. Typically, the experiment produces death, trauma, disease, shortening of life, disability, or permanent disability, and is thus considered an example of medical torture because participants have to endure a large amount of pain.
At Auschwitz and other German camps, under the direction of Eduard Wirths, selected prisoners were subjected to dangerous experiments designed to assist German military personnel in combat situations, develop new weapons, assist the recovery of wounded military personnel, and to advance racial ideology that supported by the Third Reich. Aribert Heim conducted a similar medical experiment at Mauthausen. Carl VÃÆ'Â|rnet is known to have conducted experiments on homosexual prisoners in an attempt to "heal" homosexuality.
After the war, these crimes were tried on what is known as the Doctor's Examination, and the offenses committed led to the development of the Nuremberg Medical Code of Ethics. During the Nuremberg Trial, 23 Nazi doctors and scientists were on trial for unethical treatment of concentration camp prisoners, often used as research subjects with fatal consequences. Of those 23, 16 were convicted (15 convicted for unethical treatment, while one of them was only sentenced from SS membership), 7 were sentenced to death, 9 received imprisonment of 10 years for life, and 7 were released.
Before World War II
The Law for the Prevention of Genetic Disability, authorized on July 14, 1933, legalized forced sterilization against people with diseases claimed to be descendants: weak minds, schizophrenia, alcohol abuse, madness, blindness, deafness, and physical disability. The law was used to encourage the growth of the Aryan race through the sterilization of people falling under quotas due to genetic defects. 1% of residents between the ages of 17 to 24 have been sterilized within 2 years of the law's passing. In 4 years, 300,000 patients have been sterilized. From about March 1941 to about January 1945, the sterilization experiments were carried out at Auschwitz, Ravensbrück, and other places by Dr. Carl Clauberg. The purpose of this experiment is to develop a sterilization method that would be suitable to sterilize millions of people with a minimum of time and effort. This experiment was done by X-ray, surgery and various drugs. Thousands of victims are sterilized. Aside from his experiments, the Nazi government sterilized about 400,000 people as part of a mandatory sterilization program. An intravenous injection of the speculated solution contains iodine and silver nitrate successfully, but has unwanted side effects such as vaginal bleeding, severe abdominal pain, and cervical cancer. Therefore, radiation treatment becomes the preferred choice of sterilization. A certain amount of radiation exposure destroys one's ability to produce eggs or sperm. Radiation is given through fraud. Inmates were taken to a room and asked to fill out a form, which took two to three minutes. Currently, radiation treatment is given and, unknown to the prisoners, they are completely sterile. Many suffered severe radiation burns.
Dr. Eugen Fischer started a sterilization experiment in occupied West Africa during World War I. A supporter of forced sterilization as a means of preventing the growth of the inferior population and members of the Nazi Party, Fischer focused his experiment on a mixed race. children to justify the Nazi Party ban on interracial marriages. As a result of Fischer's research in Namibia, Germany prohibited marriage between people of various races in his colony.
During World War II
The Luftwaffe performed a series of 360 to 400 trials at Dachau and Auschwitz, where hypothermia was induced in 280 to 300 victims. This was done for the Nazi high command to simulate the conditions of troops suffered on the Eastern Front, as the Germans were unprepared for the cold weather they encountered. Many experiments were conducted on captured Russian troops; The Nazis wondered whether their genetics gave them superior resistance to the cold. About 100 people are reported to have died as a result of this experiment.
In early 1942, detainees at the Dachau concentration camp were used by Sigmund Rascher in experiments to assist German pilots who had to throw on high ground. The low pressure chamber containing this resistance is used to simulate conditions at a height of up to 20,000 m (66,000 ft). Of the 200 subjects, 80 die dead, and the others are executed.
Other experiments include: experiments on twins (such as sewing twins together in an attempt to create conjoined twins), experiments on recurring head injuries that make boys go mad, experiments at Buchenwald where poison is secretly given in food, experiments to test the effects of various pharmaceutical preparations on induced phosphorus burns with materials from incendiary bombs, experiments at RavensbrÆ'¼¼ to investigate the effectiveness of sulfonamide after infection with bacteria such as Clostridium perfringens (a causative agent in gangrene gas) and Clostridium tetani (a causative agent in tetanus), experiments performed to attempt treatment of chemical burns caused by mustard gas and similar compounds, and experiments at Dachau to study various methods of making drinkable seawater.
Many subjects died as a result of experiments, while many others were executed after the tests were completed to study the effects of post mortem. Those who survive are often left to be mutilated, suffering permanent disabilities, weak body, and mental stress.
Dachau freeze trial results have been used in several modern studies into hypothermia treatment, with at least 45 publications referencing experiments since the Second World War. This, along with the use of recent data from Nazi research into the effects of phosgene gas, has proven controversial and presents an ethical dilemma for modern physicians who disagree with the methods used to obtain this data. Some objections on ethical grounds, and others reject Nazi research solely on scientific grounds, indicating methodological inconsistencies. In a frequently quoted review of the Dachau hypothermia experiment, Berger stated that the study has "all scientific deceitful material" and that data "can not advance science or save lives."
Some Nazi researchers after the war were employed by the United States government in Operation Paperclip and later similar efforts.
Maps Unethical human experimentation
Japanese
Japanese Empire
Human subject research in Japan began in World War II. It continued for several years after that. During the American occupation of Japan, General Douglas MacArthur granted immunity from prosecution to Japanese man-doing research; instead, Japan gave all of their experimental results to the United States.
Unit 731, a department of the Imperial Japanese Army located near Harbin (later in Manchukuo puppet state, in northeastern China), experimented on detention by performing live, cutting, and bacterial inoculation. This induced a very large scale epidemic from 1932 onwards through the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also conducts biological and chemical weapons tests on detainees and captures prisoners of war. With imperial expansion during World War II, similar units were established in conquered cities such as Nanking (Unit 1644), Beijing (Unit 1855), Guangzhou (Unit 8604) and Singapore (Unit 9420). After the war, Supreme Commander Douglas MacArthur gave immunity on behalf of the United States to Shiro Ishii and all members of the unit to be exchanged for all their experimental results.
The United States blocked Soviet access to this information. The Soviets killed several members of Unit 731 during the Khabarovsk War Crimes Tribunal.
In November 2006, Doctor Akira Makino confessed to Kyodo news that he had performed surgeries and amputations on cursed prisoners, including women and children, in 1944 and 1945 when he was stationed in Mindanao. Most of the victims of Makino are Muslim Moros. In 2007, Doctor Ken Yuasa testified to The Japan Times and said that he believes that at least 1,000 people working for the Shay regime, including surgeons, conduct surgical research in mainland China.
Japan
In an incident throughout the 1950s, former members of Unit 731 were infected with prisoners and mental health patients with deadly diseases. In 1958, a large number of babies were taken to Kobe Medical School and forcibly given sugar by jabbing needles through their noses and into their stomachs. A tube is inserted into their anus to determine how the sugar is processed by their digestive system. Many babies have diarrhea and anal bleeding. Parents are never told that their children are being used as test subjects.
Guatemala
From 1946 to 1948 US scientific researchers in Guatemala infected hundreds of mental patients with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Researchers from the US Department of Public Health (PHS) conducted an experiment on about 1,500 male and female patients housed at Guatemala's National Health Mental Hospital. Scientists inject patients with gonorrhea and syphilis - and encourage many of them to spread the disease to others. The experiment was conducted in collaboration with the Guatemalan government. PHS experiments under the guise of syphilis inoculation. In 2010 this experiment was revealed by Susan Reverby of Wellesley College, who was researching a book about the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton issued an official apology to Guatemala. President Barack Obama apologized to President ÃÆ' lvaro Colom, who called the experiment 'crimes against humanity'.
Vipeholm Experiment
The Vipeholm experiment was a series of human experiments in which patients of the Vipeholm Mental Hospital in Lund, Sweden were fed large amounts of sweets to provoke dental caries (1945-1955). The experiment is sponsored by the sugar industry and the dentist community, in an attempt to determine whether carbohydrates affect the formation of cavities. The experiment provides extensive knowledge of dental health and generates sufficient empirical data to link sugar intake with dental caries. However, today they are considered to have violated the principles of medical ethics.
United Kingdom
The secret documents of the National Archives reveal that during the 1930s and 1940s, the British Army used hundreds of British soldiers and British native soldiers as "guinea pigs" in their experiments to determine whether the gas mustard caused greater damage to the skin India compared to English skin. It is unclear whether the experimental subjects, some of whom were hospitalized for their injuries, were all volunteers.
In Great Britain, a voluntary and unethical human experiment in Porton Down in the 1950s caused a death that violated the law of Ronald Maddison.
United States
Since the end of the 19th century, many human experiments have been conducted in the United States, which has been characterized as unethical. They are often done illegally, without the knowledge, consent, or informed consent of the test subjects. Examples include deliberate infection in people with deadly or debilitating diseases, exposing people to biological and chemical weapons, human radiation experiments, injecting people with toxic and radioactive chemicals, surgical experiments, interrogation experiments/tortures, tests involving mind changers, and various other people. Many of these tests are performed on children and mentally disabled individuals. In many studies, a large number of subjects are poor, racial minorities, and/or detainees. Often, subjects are sick or disabled people, whose doctors tell them that they receive "medical care." They are used as the subject of dangerous and deadly experiments, without their knowledge or consent. In reaction to this, interest groups and agencies have worked to design policies and oversight to ensure that future human subject research in the United States will be ethical and legal.
During World War II, Fort Detrick in Maryland was the headquarters of US biological warfare experiments. The Whitecoat surgery involves injecting infectious agents into military force to observe their effect on human subjects.
Public condemnation of the discovery of government experiments on human subjects led to numerous congressional inquiries and hearings, including the Church Committee, the Rockefeller Commission, and the Human Radiation Experiment Advisory Committee, among others. This investigation has not resulted in prosecution. Not all subjects involved in the trial have been compensated or notified that they are the subject of the trial.
From the 1950s 60s, Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into healthy individuals, cancer patients, and prison inmates from the Ohio Penitentiary. This experiment raises many bioethics problems involving informed consent, non-maleficence, and beneficence. Some of Southam's subjects, those who already have cancer, do not realize that they are being injected with malignant cells. In addition, in one of these patients, cells metastasize to their lymph nodes.
In 1962, the Kefauver-Harris Drug Amendment was adopted by the United States Congress. This amendment makes changes to the Federal Food Medication & amp; Consumer Law by requiring drug companies to prove the safety and effectiveness of their products. As a result, medicines are required to have the approval of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) before being marketed to consumers. In addition, informed consent becomes a requirement of participation and regulations enacted. This regulation was influenced by the results of the use of thalidomide in 1950 in Western Europe for pregnant women. They are prescribed talidomide sedation, which is not accurately marketed as a morning sickness treatment. Women give birth to more than 12,000 babies born with deformities due to the effects of the drug in the womb.
In the Tuskegee syphilis experiment from 1932 to 1972, the United States Public Health Service contracted with the Tuskegee Institute for long-term syphilis research. During the study, more than 600 African-American men were studied who were not informed that they had syphilis. In an effort to better understand the disease, the researchers denied men access to a known treatment of penicillin antibiotics. They recorded observations of disease effects over time. Under the impression they were treated for "bad blood", the participants were given free health care by the government. Because ineffective treatment was given to the subject, two thirds of the group had died by the end of the 40-year trial. The leak in 1972 led to a cessation of research and severe legal consequences. It has been widely regarded as "the most famous biomedical research study in US history". Because of public outrage, in 1974 Congress passed the National Research Act, to provide the protection of human subjects in experiments. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects Research on Biomedical and Behavior was established. It is tasked with setting boundaries between research and routine practice, the role of risk-benefit analysis, guidelines for participation, and the definition of informed consent. Its Belmont Report sets forth three principles of ethical research: respect for people, kindness, and justice.
The MKUltra project - sometimes referred to as the "CIA mind-maintenance program" - is the code name given for an experimental illegal program on human subjects, designed and conducted by the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States (CIA). Human trials are intended to identify and develop drugs and procedures to be used in interrogation and torture, to weaken individuals to force recognition through mind control. Organized through the CIA's Scientific Intelligence Division, the project is coordinated with the US Army's Department of Special Operations Corps of Operations. The program began in the early 1950s, officially approved in 1953, reduced in scope in 1964, subsequently restricted in 1967 and officially discontinued in 1973. The program was involved in many illegal activities; in particular it was used unwittingly of US and Canadian citizens as test subjects, leading to controversy over legitimacy. MKUltra uses many methodologies to manipulate people's mental states and alter brain function, including silent drug delivery (especially LSD) and other chemicals, hypnosis, sensory deprivation, isolation, verbal and sexual abuse, and various forms of torture.
Beecher Paper
In a 1966 paper, Harvard anesthesiologist Henry K. Beecher outlined 22 published medical studies in which the patient was the subject without the expected benefits for the experimental patient. It has been characterized as unethical. For example, patients infused with living cancer cells have been told in a study that they received "some cells," without being told that this is cancer. Although the identities of the authors and institutions have been stripped, 22 later studies have been identified to have been conducted by lead researchers and published in prestigious journals within the past decade. 22 cases have been selected from a set of 50 collected by Beecher. He presents evidence that such unethical studies are widespread and represent systemic problems in medical research rather than exceptions.
Beecher has written about human experiments and publicized cases he considers to be bad practice for almost a decade. His reading in 1965 to the science writer and his paper in 1966 gained wide coverage and stimulated a public reaction. This paper has been described as "the single most influential paper ever written about experiments involving human subjects." The United States Office for the Protection of Human Research credits Beecher through this paper as "ultimately contributing to the impetus for the first NIH and FDA regulations."
Beecher was instrumental in developing solutions for such violations. He notes that the common element in this study is that some experimental subjects, such as military personnel or mentally disabled children in institutions, are not in a position of free rejection of consent. Beecher believes that rules that require informed consent are insufficient, because genuine informed consent is an unattainable goal. He works well to define rules and regulations for informed consent, and to establish institutional review boards as an additional layer of oversight of the research protocol.
International drug trials
Since the end of the 20th century, African countries have often been the site of clinical trials by major international pharmaceutical companies. In some cases, rural communities have developed iatrophobia (fear of doctors) after undergoing or studying highly controversial medical experiments. The fundamental distrust lies in the potential confrontation of Hobson's choice: "Experimental or no drugs at all". Several cases of ethically questionable experiments have been documented.
At the end of the 20th century, Depo-Provera was clinically tested on Zimbabwean women. Once approved, the drug was used as a measure of population control in the 1970s. Commercial farm owners put pressure on indigenous female workers to accept Depo-Provera use. The importance of population control motivates many family planning programs. This led to an eventual ban in Zimbabwe.
Clinical trials in 1996 in Kano, Nigeria involving Pfizer Trovan drugs to treat meningitis resulted in 200 children becoming disabled and death 11. Because of this accident, the Nigerian government sued Pfizer as to whether they obtained informed consent properly. Pfizer argues in court that they have met all the rules for drug testing. Many Nigerians do not believe in the use of medical vaccines and also refuse to participate in medical trials.
In 1994 US drug companies began testing AZT drugs on African HIV-positive subjects with the aim of developing care to reduce HIV/AIDS transmission during labor. With funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the program tested more than 17,000 Zimbabwean women for the efficacy of AZT in preventing HIV/AIDS transmission during labor. Half of the women were given a placebo rather than a drug, and subjects were not informed of the potential dangers of treatment. According to Peter Lamptey, head of the AIDS Control and Prevention Program, "if you interview people in this study, most will not understand what they actually agree with." An estimated 1,000 newborns of women in this study develop HIV/AIDS, although this can be avoided by treating women with known drugs. The tests were discontinued in 1998 when the CDC claimed to have obtained sufficient data from experiments in Thailand.
See also
- Medical torture
- Pharmacological torture
- Patient harassment
- Political harassment of psychiatry
- Coastal Project
References
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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