The Book of the Dead is the cemetery text of ancient Egypt, used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (about 1550 BC) to about 50 BC. The original Egyptian name for the text, translates rw nw prt m hrw translated as Similar Books by Days . Another translation is Book of Emerging Forth into the Light . "Book" is the closest term to describe a loose collection of texts composed of a number of magic spells intended to aid the travel of the dead through Duat , or the underworld, and to the hereafter and written by many. priest for about 1000 years.
The Book of the Dead is part of the funeral text tradition that includes Pyramid Texts and earlier Coat Texts, depicted on objects, not papyrus. Some of the mantras include taken from older works and dates to the 3rd millennium BC. Another spell is composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th century to 7th BC). A number of spells that compose the Book continue to be inscribed on the walls of the cemetery and the sarcophagus, as it has always been the mantra from which they came. The Book of the Dead is placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased.
There is no single or canonical book The Book of the Dead . The surviving papyrus contains a wide selection of religious and magical texts and varies greatly in the illustrations. Some people seem to have assigned their own copies of Book of the Dead, possibly choosing a spell that they think is most important in their own development to the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is most often written in hieroglyphic or hieratic writing on papyrus rolls, and is often depicted by sketches depicting the deceased and their journey to the afterlife.
Video Book of the Dead
Development
The Book of the Dead is developed from the tradition of cemetery script dating back to the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The first funeral texts are the Pyramid Texts, first used in the Pyramid of the 5th King Unas dynasty, around 2400 BC. These texts are written on the walls of the burial chamber within the pyramid, and exclusively for the use of Pharaoh (and, of the 6th dynasty, Queen). Pyramid Texts are written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals remaining incomplete or interested in mutilation, most likely to prevent them from causing damage to the dead pharaohs. The purpose of the Pyramid Texts is to help the dead King take his place among the gods, especially to reunite him with his holy father Ra; in this period the Hereafter is seen as being in the heavens, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead. Toward the end of the Old Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts are no longer exclusive privileges, and adopted by regional governors and other high-ranking officials.
In the Middle Kingdom, new burial texts appear, the text of the coffin. The Coffin Texts use newer language versions, new spells, and include illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts are most often written on the inside surface of the coffin, although it is sometimes found in tomb walls or on papyrus. The Coffin Texts are available to wealthy private people, greatly increasing the number of people who can expect to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as "democratization of the hereafter".
The Book of the Dead was first developed in Thebes ahead of the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BC. The earliest known incident of the mantra included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep, from the 13th dynasty, where new spells were incorporated among the old texts known from the Text Pyramid and Coffin SMS. Some of the mantras introduced today claim older origins; for example the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure, hundreds of years before it is proved in archaeological records.
In the 17th dynasty, Book of the Dead was widespread not only for members of the royal family, but the courtiers and other officials as well. At this stage, the spell is usually inscribed on the linen that wraps around the dead, though sometimes they are found written on coffins or on papyrus.
The New Kingdom sees Book of the Dead developing and spreading further. The famous Spell 125, 'Weighing of the Heart', was first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, c.1475 BC. From this period onwards the Book of the Dead is usually written on papyrus scrolls, and the text is illustrated by sketch. During the 19th dynasty in particular, sketches tend to be fancy, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text.
In the Third Intermediate Period, Book of the Dead begins to appear in hieratic scripts, as well as in traditional hieroglyphs. The hierarchy roll is a cheaper version, less illustrated regardless of one sketch at the beginning, and produced with smaller papyrus. At the same time, many burials use additional burial text, for example Amduat .
During dynasties 25 and 26, the Book of the Dead has been updated, revised and standardized. Mantra is consistently booked and numbered for the first time. This standard version is known today as 'Saite recension', after the Saite dynasty (26). In the Late and Ptolemaic periods, The Book of the Dead remains based on the Saite recension, although it is increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period. New funerary texts appear, including the Breathing Book and The Book of Counterfeit Exercises . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BC, although some of the artistic motifs taken from him were still used in Roman times.
Maps Book of the Dead
Mantra
The Book of the Dead consists of a number of individual texts and accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word ro, which can mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "speech", "spell", or "a chapter from a book." This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual and supernatural speech. In the context of Book of the Dead, usually translates as "chapters" or "spells". In this article, the word "spell" is used.
Currently, about 192 spells are known, although there is not a single manuscript that contains them all. They serve many purposes. Some are meant to impart a mystical knowledge that is already dead in the afterlife, or perhaps to identify them with gods: for example, Spell 17 is a vague and long description of the god Atum. The other is a mantra to make sure the different elements of the deceased are preserved and reunited, and to give the dead control over the world around it. Others protect the deceased from enemy forces or guide him through the underworld through various obstacles. Famous, the two spells also dealt with the deceased's judgment in the Weighing ritual.
Charms such as 26-30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, are related to the heart and are etched on the scarabs.
Text and images from Book of the Dead are very magical and also religious. Magic is a legitimate activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves. Indeed, there is little difference for Ancient Egypt between magical practice and religion. The concept of magic ( heka ) is also closely related to the spoken and written word. The act of speaking a ritual formula is an act of creation; there is a feeling in which action and speech are one and the same thing. The magical power of words extends to the written word. Hieroglyphic manuscripts were held for the creation of the god Thoth, and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words convey the full power of the mantra. This is even true when the text is abbreviated or omitted, as is often the case in the book scrolls Book of the Dead , especially if the accompanying picture exists. Egyptians also believe that knowing the name of something gives power to it; thus, Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical name of many entities he will meet in the afterlife, giving him power over them.
The Mantra of the Book of the Dead uses some magical techniques that can also be seen in other areas of Egypt. A number of spells for magical amulets, which will protect the deceased from danger. In addition to being represented on the papyrus Book of the Dead , these spells appear on the cuts of the wounds into mummy wraps. Magic every day using a huge amount of amusement. Other items that directly touch the body in the tomb, such as headrest, are also considered to have amuletic values. A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the power of salivary magical healing.
Organizations
Almost every Book of the Dead is unique, containing a mixture of different spells retrieved from the textual corps available. For most of the Book of the Dead history there is no clear structure or structure. In fact, until 1967 Paul Barguet's "pioneering study" on general themes among texts, Egyptian scholars concluded that there was no internal structure at all. Only from the Saite period (the 26th dynasty) and beyond that there is a prescribed sequence.
The Books of the Dead of the Saite period tends to set the Chapter into four parts:
- Chapters 1-16 * The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its power from movement and speech.
- Chapters 17-63 Explanation of the mythical origins of the gods and places. The deceased was made to live again so that he could rise, be reborn, with the morning sun.
- Chapter 64-129 The deceased crossed the sky in the sun ark as one of the blessed. In the evening, the deceased traveled to the underworld to appear before Osiris.
- Chapters 130-189 After being defended, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section also covers chapters on protective amulets, food supplies, and important places.
Egyptian concepts of death and the afterlife
The mantra in Book of the Dead describes Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is an important source of information about Egyptian confidence in this area.
Preservation
One aspect of death is the disintegration of various kheperu, or modes of existence. The funeral ritual serves to reintegrate these different aspects. Mummification serves to preserve and transform the physical body into legitimate , the idealized form with the divine aspect; Book of the Dead contains a mantra intended to preserve the body of the deceased, which may have been read during the mummification process. The heart, considered an aspect that includes intelligence and memory, is also protected by a spell, and if anything happens to the physical heart, it's common to bury the heart scarab with the body to provide a replacement. The ka , or life force, remains in the grave with a corpse, and requires sustenance from the offerings of food, water and incense. In case the priests or relatives fail to make this offer, Spell 105 makes sure they are satisfied. The names of the deceased, which is their individuality and necessary for their survival, are written in many places throughout the Book, and the spell 25 ensures that the deceased will remember their own name. The ba is a free spirit aspect of the deceased. It is ba , depicted as a human-headed bird, which can "go forth day by day" from tomb to world; spells 61 and 89 act to preserve it. Finally, the shut , or the shadow of the deceased, is preserved with spells 91, 92 and 188. If all aspects of this person can be preserved, remembered, and satisfied, then the deceased will live in the form of . An akh is a spirit blessed with a supernatural power that will live among the gods.
Afterlife
The nature of the hereafter enjoyed by the dead is difficult to determine, due to the difference in tradition in the ancient Egyptian religion. In the Book of the Dead, the dead were brought before the god Osiris, who were locked in the ground under Duat. There is also a spell to enable ba or akh the dead to join Ra when he travels the sky in his barracks, and helps him against Apep. In addition to joining God, the Book of the Dead also describes dead people living in the 'Field of Reeds', a paradisiac similarity from the real world. The Field of Reeds is described as a fertile and abundant version of the living Egypt. There are fields, plants, cattle, humans and waterways. The dead are shown to meet Ennead Agung, a group of deities, as well as their own parents. While the portrayals of the Field of Reeds are fun and abundant, it is also clear that manual work is required. For this reason the funeral includes a number of statues named shabti , or newer ushebti . These statues are written with a spell, also included in the Book of the Dead, which requires them to perform manual work that may be the owner's job in the hereafter. It is also clear that the dead not only go to a place where the gods live, but that they acquire the divine characteristics themselves. On many occasions, the deceased was mentioned as "Osiris - [ Name ]" in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as set forth in the Book of the Dead is difficult. The deceased was asked to pass through a series of gates, caves and bumps guarded by supernatural beings. This dreadful entity is armed with a large knife and is illustrated in a peculiar form, usually as a human figure with an animal's head or a combination of different beasts. Their names - for example, "He who lives with snakes" or "He who dances with blood" - are both weird. These creatures should be soothed by reciting the proper mantra included in the Book of the Dead; once soothed they posed no further threat, and could even extend their protection to the deceased. Another breed of supernatural beings is the 'butcher' who kills the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; Book of the Dead equips owners to release their attention. As well as these supernatural entities, there are also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles.
Judgment
If all odds of Duat are negotiable, the deceased will be judged in the "Weighing Heart" ritual, described in Spell 125. The deceased is led by the god Anubis to Osiris. There, the dead person swears that he did not commit any sin from the list of 42 sins, reading a text known as "Negative Recognition". Then the dead man's heart is weighed by a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat, who embodies truth and justice. Maat is often represented by ostrich feathers, a hieroglyphic sign for his name. At this point, there is a risk that the deceased's heart will be a witness, having a sin committed in life; Spell 30B is guarded against this possibility. If the balance is balanced, this means the deceased has lived a good life. Anubis will take them to Osiris and they will find their place in the afterlife, be maa-kheru , which means "justified" or "true of the voice". If the heart is unbalanced with the Maat, then another frightening beast called Ammit , the Devourer, is ready to eat it and put the dead here in its early and unpleasant ending.
This scene is remarkable not only because of its clarity but as one of the few passages of the Book of the Dead with explicit moral content. The judgment of the dead and the Negative Recognition is a representation of the conventional moral code governing Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in Negative Confession, it is possible to read "No You" which is not expressed. While the Ten Commandments of Judeo-Christian ethics are rules of conduct established by perceived divine revelation, the Negative Recognition is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality. A different view among Egyptologists about how far Negative Recognition represents an absolute moral, with the ethical purity necessary for progress to the Hereafter. John Taylor points out the words Mantra 30B and 125 show a pragmatic approach to morality; by preventing the heart against it with unpleasant truths, it seems that the deceased can enter the afterlife even if their life is not completely pure. Ogden Goelet says "without existence of example and morals, there is no hope for a successful afterlife", while Geraldine Pinch points out that Negative Recognition is essentially similar to the protective mantra of Satan, and that the success of Weighing depends on mystical knowledge of the names the real judge and not the moral behavior of the deceased.
Producing Book of the Dead
A Book of the Dead papyrus was produced to order by the scribes. They were assigned by the people in preparation for their own funeral, or by the relatives of someone who had just died. That's expensive stuff; one source gives the price of a roll of Book of the Dead as one of the deben of silver, perhaps half of a worker's annual salary. Papyrus itself is expensive, as there are many examples of reuse in everyday documents, creating palimpsests. In one case, a Book of the Dead was written in the former papyrus.
Most owners of Book of the Dead are clearly part of the social elite; they were originally reserved for the royal family, but later papyri were found in the tombs of scribes, priests, and officials. Most of the owners are male, and generally sketches include the owner's wife as well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead, there are about 10 copies of a man for each person for a woman. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, 2/3 for women; and women have about a third of the payrolls of the Final Period and Ptolemaic.
The dimensions of Book of the Dead can vary greatly; the longest is 40m long while some as short as 1m. They consist of papyrus sheets joined together, individual papyri vary in widths from 15 cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on the Papyrus are more concerned about their work than those who work on more worldly texts; care is taken to frame text in margins, and to avoid writing on the connection between sheets. The words peret em heru , or "come day by day" sometimes appear behind the outside margins, may act as labels.
Books are often contrived in funeral workshops, with space left for the name of the deceased written later. For example, in Ani Papy , the name "Ani" appears at the top or bottom of the column, or immediately follows a section that introduces it as the speaker of the text block; the name appears in different handwriting throughout the manuscript, and in some places it is spelled or omitted entirely.
The New Kingdom text Book of the Dead is usually written in cursive hieroglyphs, most often from left to right, but also occasionally from right to left. Hieroglyphs are in columns, separated by black stripes - arrangements similar to those used when hieroglyphs are carved on walls or monuments of the tomb. Illustrations are placed in a frame above, below, or between text columns. The biggest illustration takes a full page of papyrus.
From the 21st Dynasty onwards, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic scripts. Calligraphy is similar to other hierarchical manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in a horizontal line in the wide column (often the size of the column corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets that the roll is made). Sometimes the Book of the Dead hierarchy contains information in hieroglyphics.
The text of Book of the Dead is written in black and red ink, regardless of whether it is in hieroglyphic or hieratic writing. Most of the black text, with red ink used for spell titles, opens and closes spell parts, instructions for performing spells properly in rituals, and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as Apep fiends. The black ink used is based on carbon, and red ink on the ocher, in both cases mixed with water.
The style and nature of the sketches used to describe the Book of the Dead varies greatly. Some contain luxurious color illustrations, even utilizing gold leaf. Others only contain line drawings, or one simple illustration at the opening.
Book of the Dead papyri is often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work is literally affixed together. It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used in a particular manuscript, even when the manuscript is shorter. The text and illustrations were made by different scribes; there are a number of Books in which the text is finished but the illustrations are left blank.
Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation
The existence of The Book of the Dead is known as early as the Middle Ages, long before its contents can be understood. Since it is found in the cemetery, it is clearly a religious document, and this causes a widespread misunderstanding that the Book of the Dead is equivalent to the Bible or Qur'an.
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a manuscript translation dating to the Ptolemaic era and created the name " Book of the Dead" ( das Todtenbuch ). He also introduced a spell numbering system that is still in use, identifying 165 different mantras. Lepsius promotes the idea of ​​a comparative edition of Book of the Dead , retrieving all relevant manuscripts. The project was undertaken by Naville, which began in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing three-volume work including the selection of sketches for every one of his 186 spells, more significant variations of the text for each spell, and commentary. In 1867, Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation. In 1876 he published a photographic copy of Papyrus Nebseny.
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge, a substitute for Birch in the British Museum, is still widely circulated - including his hieroglyphic editions and his English translation of the Ani Papyrus, although the latter is now considered inaccurate and out of date. More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972). As more work has been done on Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified, and the total now reaches 192.
In the 1970s, Ursula RÃÆ'¶ÃÆ'Ÿler-KÃÆ'¶hler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of the Book of the Dead . It subsequently received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academy of Sciences and Arts. Today the Book of the Dead Project, as it is called, maintains a documentation and photography database covering 80% of the remaining copies and fragments of the Dead text book corpus, and provides current services to Egyptologists. It's stationed at the University of Bonn, with lots of material available online. The affiliated scholar is writing a series of monographic studies, Studien zum AltÃÆ'¤gyptischen Totenbuch , in addition to the series that published the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des AltÃÆ'¤gyptischen Totenbuches . Both were printed by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released a series of other related monographs, Totenbuchtexte , focusing on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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